Artifacts, Arthropods, and Anthropology

This is one of several figurines that have been unearthed from miniature burial pits located throughout the ancient city of Vani, which once served as the religious, cultural, and administrative center for the Kingdom of Colchis. Each figurine was crafted from bronze or iron, adorned with tiny pieces of jewelry, wrapped in a burial shroud, and then placed in its own special "grave" beneath a temple.

Above: one of the burial figurines from ancient Vani

As this article describes:

Seven metal figurines, dating to 300–200 BCE, have been discovered both in and near sacred structures at Vani. Adorned with gold jewelry and apparently wrapped in decorated garments, the figures were carefully buried in a way that seems to mimic the human burials at the site.

Above: close-up of another burial figurine from Vani, in this case depicting a satyr with a golden torque

The adornments on each figurine also mimic some of the jewelry and burial garments that have been found in human graves at Vani:

One figurine has a head with disproportionately large features, a low sloping brow, and an elongated torso with bowed arms and stiffly rendered legs. Most striking is its lavish gold jewellery, some of which reflects the types that were worn by people who were buried at Vani. In addition to gold earrings, a torque, and bracelets, five gold rosettes appear to have been strung around the figurine’s head, and several pendants were found in its chest area.

The figurine was placed between two terracotta tiles and then buried in a small pit that had been cut into the bedrock, thus mimicking contemporary human burials.

The precise function, surely of local religious nature, still remains a subject of discussion. However, it is worth noting that the intriguing practice of burying such figurines in a ritualistic manner appears to be specific to Vani during its phase as a sanctuary city.

Above: the figurine on the left is decorated with a pair of earrings, bracelets, a torque, and a crown of gold rosettes

As I've mentioned before, the Kingdom of Colchis covered most of what is now western Georgia, and the Colchians themselves were famous for their skill as goldsmiths. To the ancient Greeks, Colchis was also known as the homeland of the fabled Golden Fleece, where the story of Jason and the Argonauts took place.

Above: more of the burial figurines from Vani

Sources & More Info:

John Paul Getty Museum: The Golden Graves of Ancient Vani

Fitzwilliam Museum: Ritual

Journal of Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies: Vani: an Ancient City of Colchis (PDF)

Above: three different species of lerp psyllid

These tiny, aphid-like creatures are commonly known as lerp psyllids or jumping plant lice. Their nymphs have specialized mouthparts that can extract the sap from certain plants, and the sugar is then excreted as a liquid that quickly crystalizes when it hits the air, allowing the nymphs to build intricate structures known as lerps.

Above: psyllid nymphs hiding beneath their lerps, likely Creiis corniculatus and Creiis costatus

As this article explains:

Lerps are basically pure starch with some proteins and fats. They are created by psyllids, which are tiny, sap-sucking insects. When psyllid nymphs imbibe tree sap, their gut absorbs the amino acids and nutrients, but they quickly excrete the water as honeydew and the sugar as lerps.

Above: the lerps of two different psyllids from genus Cardiaspina

Each species produces its own distinctive type of lerp. Some of these structures resemble clamshells, while others have a fuzzy, glassy, or basket-like appearance; most lerps measure roughly 1-5mm in diameter, but some have a wavy or tube-like shape that can extend to a length of more than 10mm.

Above: a pair of exposed psyllid nymphs

These structures provide the nymphs with some measure of protection from parasites, predators, and dehydration, but they can also attract some unwanted attention:

Unfortunately for psyllids, their homes taste sweet (containing more starch than cane sugar) and are a prized food of birds, mammals and opportunistic humans. The level of sweetness fluctuates depending on the season, the weather, and the species of psyllid.

Above: animals feeding on some sweet, delicious lerps

The nymphs themselves are tiny, and their bodies often have a flat, oblong shape that allows them to slide beneath their lerps more effectively. They spend all five stages of their nymphal development tucked beneath their lerps; if the structure is damaged, removed, or destroyed, the nymph immediately begins to construct a new one.

Above: genus Hyalinaspis and genus Cardiaspina

When the nymph finally reaches maturity, it sheds its exuvia (molted exoskeleton) and emerges from the lerp as an adult psyllid. The adults are winged insects that look like miniature cicadas, with their bodies typically measuring less than 5mm long (that's about 1/5th of an inch).

Most lerp-forming psyllids are native to Australia, but they also occur as an invasive species in many other parts of the world.

Above: nymphs of genus Glycaspis and Cardiaspina

Lerps have traditionally been incorporated into the beliefs and practices of Aboriginal cultures in Australia, which is home to more than 300 different species of lerp-producing psyllid:

Lerps feature in Aboriginal calendars, ceremonies, mythology, and cosmology, all of which have embedded biocultural knowledge about the time and place for optimal collection. These insects are central to Indigenous cultures, yet Western science knows surprisingly little about their taxonomy, biology, and ecology.

The term "lerp" actually comes from the indigenous word lerep, which means "sweet" in the Wemba-Wemba language of southeastern Australia.

Above: Eucalyptolyma maideni, also known as a spotted gum lerp psyllid, hiding beneath its fern-like lerp

Sources & More Info:

Land for Wildlife: Lerps: One of Nature's Sweet Offerings

Business Queensland: Psyllids and Lerps

Journal of Ethnobiology: Indigenous Use of Lerps in Australia: So Much More than a Sweet Treat

Aboriginal Peoples and Terrestrial Invertebrates in Australia: Lerp and Honeydew

iNaturalist: Subfamily Spondyliaspidinae

These photos show the embryonic form of Limulus polyphemus, commonly known as the Atlantic horseshoe crab. The eggs of this species are initially opaque, with a grayish-blue, green, or pink coloration, but they become increasingly translucent as the embryos mature, providing a glimpse of the tiny horseshoe crabs developing within.

Above: several embryos twirling around in their eggs

The legs become visible roughly five days after fertilization, and the embryos begin to move shortly thereafter, eventually flexing their legs and twirling their bodies. They molt for the very first time just a few days later. Each embryo will shed its skin and grow a new one four times in total before it even hatches from the egg.

The color variations are likely related to the growth rate of each individual embryo, which can differ slightly based on the temperature, salinity, moisture, and oxygen levels around each egg. Certain colors can also arise from bacterial or fungal growth in the egg membrane.

Above: Limulus polyphemus embryos

The hatchlings finally emerge after 2-4 weeks. The freshly-hatched larvae measure less than 1cm long, and they look just like miniature versions of their adult form, except that they do not yet have tails (which are actually known as telsons) and their exoskeletons are still soft and translucent. These young horseshoe crabs are often described as "trilobite larvae."

Above: a young horseshoe crab discarding its egg

Atlantic horseshoe crabs generally spawn in May and June, with hundreds of thousands of individuals gathering along the coast on the night of the full moon and new moon. Each female lays up to 100,000 eggs per season, but very few of those offspring actually survive to adulthood. Most of the eggs are eaten or destroyed before they can even hatch, and many of the remaining larvae perish at some point during the 10 years that it takes for them to reach full maturity (i.e. the age at which they begin to reproduce).

Above: the freshly-hatched larvae

Wild horseshoe crabs can live to be more than 20 years old, and they can measure up to 60 centimeters (2 feet) long. They have 10 eyes in total, including two compound eyes that are specifically adapted for the purpose of finding a mate:

The most obvious eyes are the two lateral compound eyes. These are used for finding mates during the spawning season. Each compound eye has about 1,000 receptors or ommatidia. The cones and rods of the lateral eyes have a similar structure to those found in human eyes, but are around 100 times larger in size. At night, the lateral eyes are chemically stimulated to greatly increase the sensitivity of each receptor to light. This allows the horseshoe crab to identify other horseshoe crabs in the darkness.

Above: a close-up of a horseshoe crab's compound eye, which is covered in tiny hatchlings for some reason

Horseshoe crabs have been around for at least 445 million years, which means that these creatures are about 200 million years older than the dinosaurs and at least 50 million years older than trees, and yet their morphology has changed very little in that time. In fact, modern horseshoe crabs are frequently described as "living fossils," because they still look strikingly similar to their fossilized ancestors.

Above: the juvenile form of Tachypleus tridentatus, commonly known as the Chinese horseshoe crab

It's important to note that horseshoe crabs are not true crabs. In fact, they're not even crustaceans -- they belong to a completely different group of arthropods known as chelicerates, and they are more closely related to spiders and scorpions than they are to crabs.

Above: Tachypleus tridentatus and Limulus polyphemus

This is a revised/updated version of a post that I published about two years ago, with much more information, photos, and sources.

Sources & More Info:

iNaturalist: Horseshoe Crab Eggs

Maryland Department of Natural Resources: Horseshoe Crab Life History

Current Zoology: Developmental Ecology of the American Horseshoe Crab

PBS: Once a Spawn a Time: Horseshoe Crabs Mob the Beach

Smithsonian National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute: Limulus polyphemus

National Wildlife Federation: Horseshoe Crabs

This sculpture was unearthed from the central terrace at Vani, which is an archaeological site located in what is now western Georgia (the country, not the state). It was created roughly 2,800 years ago, when Vani served as the religious, cultural, and administrative center for the ancient Kingdom of Colchis.

Above: the full-sized sculpture

The figure was originally designed with three heads on each end of its body, but only two of the original heads remain. Each head is depicted with a crown and an assortment of zoomorphic features.

Several other sculptures with a similar design have also been unearthed at Vani, at the nearby site of Nokalakevi, and at other Colchian sites throughout the region.

Above: a remarkably similar sculpture that was also discovered at Vani

As this article explains:

Terracotta figurines of various animals occur at Vani, but particularly interesting are four-footed figures with multiple heads on opposite ends. The protomes of two-headed and three-headed fantastical creatures with characteristic post-like legs apparently belong to figures of this type.

Above: a two-headed protome from the same site

This design also appears in some Greek sculptures from the same period:

Such figures, also common in the Greek world, have been found in 8th-7th century BCE contexts at Olympia, Delphi, Athens, Crete, Rhodes, Samos, and elsewhere. In Italy, these figures frequently appear in 7th-6th century contexts. Although at present a firm decision on which culture influenced the Vani figures (four-footed with two heads on opposite ends) is difficult to discern, the earlier emergence and wide distribution of such representations in the Greek world suggest a link with Hellenic culture.

Perhaps these new elements in Colchian culture c.800-650 BCE resulted from Greek contacts (still intermittent) in the precolonial era, which were reflected in the great popularity of stories of the Argonauts in the 8th-7th centuries and in the first geographical and ethno-political reports of Colchis. Regular Greek contacts began only c.550 BCE, after the establishment of Greek settlements on the eastern shore of the Black Sea.

Above: another two-headed protome from Vani

Sources & More Info:

The Georgian National Museum: Figurine of a Fantastical Beast

Journal of Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies: Vani: an Ancient City of Colchis (PDF)

Harvestmen, otherwise known as daddy long-legs (not to be confused with the cellar spiders of family Pholcidae, which are also described as daddy long-legs) bear a striking resemblance to spiders, but they actually belong to a separate order of arachnids known as Opiliones. These strange-looking creatures have eight legs, but only two eyes, and their body segments are largely fused together, giving the body a noticeably rounded, pill-like appearance.

Above: Metagryne bicolumnata, commonly known as the bunny harvestman

There are roughly 6,700 known species of harvestman, but researchers estimate that a total of more than 10,000 species may currently exist. Their physical features vary greatly from one species to the next; some harvestmen have crab-like claws, spikes, thorny legs, elongated bodies, colorful features, or cryptic markings. Most of them are equipped with long, spindly legs, but there are some that have shorter, stockier limbs instead.

Above: Megabunus diadema and two unidentified species from family Sclerosomatidae

Unlike spiders, harvestmen have an omnivorous diet that includes fungi, fruit pulp, seeds, pollen, lichen, algae, and invertebrate prey, and they are capable of consuming solid food, whereas spiders are typically carnivorous and feed only on fluids.

Above: a harvestman from genus Chasenella munching on a mushroom-cap

As this article explains:

Harvestmen consume mushrooms, fruit pulp, seeds, and seed appendages more frequently than spiders probably because they are “solid food feeders," which means they can ingest solid tissues by biting off small pieces. In turn, spiders are “fluid feeders” and feed on vegetable matter most frequently in the form of fluids (e.g. nectar, stigmatic exudate, plant sap, and honey dew) rather than fungal or plant tissues.

Above: genus Marthana

When given a choice between fresh fruit or invertebrate prey, some harvestmen actually prefer the fruit:

Schaus et al. carried out a feeding trial in which the Neotropical harvestman Erginulus clavotibialis was given a choice between fresh pineapple and live invertebrate prey. This harvestman demonstrated a distinct preference for fruit over the invertebrate prey.

Above: Dentobunus quadridentatus

Harvestmen are also much more social than spiders, and the males of some species have been known to engage in paternal care, which is a trait that rarely occurs among arthropods:

Single fatherhood is the rarest form of parental care in nature. Still, males are often the sole caretakers of progeny among a number of species of daddy long-legs, also known as harvestmen. In these species, fathers are exclusively responsible for guarding eggs that females lay on the undersides of leaves; the males remain on the eggs nearly constantly for months.

Above: several harvestman eggs and a young hatchling

When threatened, harvestmen often bob up and down erratically in an effort to confuse their attackers. They also have several other defense mechanisms, including pungent, foul-tasting secretions, the ability to "play dead," and autotomy, which is the ability to discard one or more of their own limbs in order to escape from predators.

Above: the photo at the top shows an unidentified harvestman from family Cosmetidae, while the photo on the bottom shows a species from genus Gnomulus

Harvestmen are completely harmless to humans. Their mouthparts are far too small to penetrate human skin, and contrary to popular belief, they do not have the "world's deadliest venom" -- in fact, they don't produce any venom at all.

Above: genus Obidosus

Sources & More Info:

BioOne: Fungus and Fruit Consumption by Harvestmen and Spiders: the Vegetarian Side of Two Predominantly Predaceous Arachnid Groups

Laboratory of Arthropod Behavior and Evolution: Harvestmen

Argo Biology: Citizen Science Reveals How Devoted Harvestman Dads Evolved Again and Again

NBC: Daddy Long-Legs Paternal Care Pays off in Longer Life, More Sex

PLOS One: Paternal Care Decreases Foraging Activity, but Does Not Impose Survival Costs to Caring Males in a Neotropical Arachnid

Gulo in Nature: Are Daddy Long-Legs Venemous?

These temple ornaments were created in the Kingdom of Kartli (also known as the Kingdom of Iberia) nearly 2,400 years ago, when Kartli controlled most of what is now eastern Georgia. Like the neighboring Kingdom of Colchis, Kartli was famous for its mastery of goldsmithing, and these pendants are a reflection of that tradition.

Temple pendants are pieces of jewelry that are designed to hang down along each side of a person's face, often covering the temples and part of the cheek. The pendants were typically suspended from a headdress, headband, or diadem. This type of jewelry is often associated with the cultures of the Near East, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe, but it has appeared in many different cultures throughout history.

These particular pendants were discovered in a cache of artifacts known as the Akhalgori hoard. They measure about 13cm (5 inches) long, and each pendant depicts a pair of horses in exquisite detail. The legs and ears were crafted from pieces of gold leaf, while the eyes were formed by thin gold wire; each horse is also depicted with a set of reigns, a harness, a rounded forelock tuft, and a decorative saddle-cloth covered with intricate patterns of gold granulation.

As this book describes:

These temple ornaments are masterpieces of the goldsmith’s art. The finest granulation is used, and individual parts are created from fine wire and thin gold leaf. The bodies of the horses are formed by two halves soldered together. The legs and ears are made of gold leaf with details depicted in relief, and even the horses’ eyes are soldered on with fine wire.

Scythian, Achaemenid, and Greek influences are all reflected in these temple ornaments, but their design and technique is also distinctly Georgian:

The form of the temple pendants — a wide plaque surmounted by a large rosette with special springs for fastening — is not found among objects from Achemenid Iran, whereas the figure of the horse, with its horse-cloth ending in a toothed pattern and drop-shaped pendants, “plumes” and harness is indisputably Achemenid. The technique employed is also Achemenid, although ornamental jewellery found in Iran does not have such rich granulation.

The temple pendants of the Akhalgori hoard are an example of metalwork fashioned in the imperial Achemenid, yet incorporating the achievements of the local metalwork schools, which can be seen in the details of the ornamentation.

Sources & More Info:

Georgian National Museum: Temple Pendants

Lost Treasures of Persia: Temple Ornaments from the 4th Century BC

Papers in Ancient Near Eastern, Mediterranean, and Armenian Studies: Achaemenids and the Southern Caucasus (PDF)

Spiders of the genus Thwaitesia are often described as mirror-ball spiders, because their bodies are lined with reflective panels that make them look like tiny disco-balls. Some sources also refer to these beautiful arachnids as dewdrop spiders or sequined spiders.

Above: two different species of mirror-ball spider

The shimmering panels are produced by a digestive secretion known as guanine, which seeps through the lining of the spider's gut, forming a mosaic of crystalline cells just beneath the surface of the abdomen.

Above: Thwaitesia spiders

The crystals retract and expand as the muscles in the spider's abdomen contract; they often shrink when the spider is agitated, and they expand as it begins to relax.

Above: the panels expanding and retracting

The adaptive purpose of this effect is unclear, but researchers believe that the panels may mimic the glistening appearance of raindrops or beads of dew, which could allow the spiders to blend in with their environment.

Above: another view of the guanine crystals shifting beneath a thin layer of cuticle

The reflective panels may also help to confuse predators, as this article explains:

The spider’s decorative patterning may seem like a dead give-away to predators, but for those looking to feast on this arachnid, the hunt might result in confusion and failure.

“Like a disco ball with lots of different mirrors, the reflective splotches on the spider’s abdomen probably scatter light and make it difficult for predators to see it,” says Robert Whyte, an honorary researcher in arachnology at the Queensland Museum.

Above: Thwaitesia affinis

There are at least 22 known species of mirror-ball spider, and their physical features can vary significantly. In some cases, the silver panels on the abdomen are accompanied by colorful, iridescent spots and scales, and the abdomen itself may have a red, orange, green, yellow, or beige appearance.

Above: spiders of the genus Thwaitesia

Mirror-ball spiders are not aggressive toward humans, and there are virtually no recorded cases of humans being bitten by the spiders of this genus. They're also tiny, with most individuals measuring just 2-4mm long (roughly 1/10th of an inch) which means that their fangs are often too small to penetrate human skin.

Above: Thwaitesia nigronodosa

These spiders are widely distributed throughout the southern hemisphere. They can be found in the tropical and neotropical rainforests of South America, Southeast Asia, Africa, Australia, India, Sri Lanka, China, Singapore, and Madagascar.

Above: Thwaitesia margaritifera

Sources & More Info:

iNaturalist: Mirror-Ball Spiders

Australian Geographic: This Sequined Spider Glistens in the Light

My Modern Met: The "Mirror Spider" and its Changing Mosaic of Reflective Panels

A Field Guide to the Spiders of Australia: Tiny Forest Jewels: Spectacular Thwaitesia Spiders

Science Friday: How is a Spider Like a Disco Ball?

Land for Wildlife: Spider Sampling Points to a Potential Indicator Genus (PDF)

Royal Society Publishing: The Spider Cuticle

This helmet was made using the skin of a porcupine-fish that was killed and then carefully dried. The front edge is lined with vegetable fiber and human hair, and it's equipped with coconut-fiber ties that were used to fasten the helmet onto the wearer's head.

Above: another porcupine-fish helmet from Kiribati

Helmets with this design are also known as te barantauti, and they were created as part of a traditional costume that was worn by the warriors of Kiribati (an island nation located in the South Pacific). Most of the surviving examples date back to the mid-1800s.

Above: a porcupine-fish helmet displayed with a high-backed cuirass, wrist-guard, and sword, c.1800s CE

Te barantauti were typically worn with body armor that was crafted from coconut-fiber and stingray skin, along with braided wrist-guards covered in shark's teeth, high-backed cuirasses, and wooden swords, spears, and daggers studded with stingray spines and shark's teeth.

Above: wrist-guards and cuirasses from Kiribati, c.1800-1880 CE

In some cases, the warrior's helmet was crafted from coconut-fiber instead. The same material was also used to construct sleeves, belts, and "overalls" that effectively covered the rest of the body.

Above: a coconut-fiber helmet with a full set of armor

The porcupine-fish helmets provided very little protection -- they were primarily created and used as a way to intimidate enemies during ritual combat.

Above: an armored warrior from Kiribati, mid-1800s

As this article explains:

The men of Kiribati were famed for their fierceness, and when it came time for battle, they dressed the part, in head-to-toe armor made from coconut fiber and stingray skin. Their weapons were wooden swords lined with sharks’ teeth.

The crown jewel of Kiribati armor, though, was a spiky helmet made from the porcupinefish. A member of the blowfish family, a porcupinefish looks like an adorable big-eyed cartoon character—until it’s threatened. Then, it sucks water into a cavity between its body and skin and inflates to several times its normal size, stiffening the spines that usually lie flat.

Porcupinefish helmets, known as te barantauti, were made by capturing one of these agitated, puffed-up porcupinefish, killing it, peeling the skin away from the body, and drying it. The spiny skin that remained was reinforced with coconut-fiber padding and fashioned into a brittle helmet.

Though the helmets offered little in the way of actual protection, they instantly made their wearers appear bigger, taller, and more formidable.

For Kiribati warriors, this intimidation was more important than protection from death. That’s because in traditional Kiribati culture, a person who took someone’s life—even in a fair fight—paid with their most prized resource: their land. So instead of going for the kill, warriors sought to wound and humiliate their enemy. Fish-skin and coconut-fiber offered just the right amount of protection.

Above: a shark-tooth sword from Kiribati, c.1800s CE

Unfortunately, most of the surviving helmets, weapons, and pieces of armor are now housed in Western museums:

Over the years, dozens of these helmets made their way into museums across the globe, while few remain in Kiribati. The Smithsonian actually has three, the British Museum five, and Sweden’s Världskulturmuseerna “at least eight,” according to their digitization curator Magnus Johansson. One te barantauti even wound up at the Fairbanks Museum and Planetarium, in the tiny town of St. Johnsbury, Vermont.

Over the last four decades, since Kiribati gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1979, the armor has taken on a new meaning—as a potent symbol of local culture. It features on tourist trinkets, but also stamps and school mascots. “The armor is not just a garment to me,” says Rareti Ataniberu, an I-Kiribati craftswoman. “It is a piece of art, a craft.”

Sources & More Info:

Hakai Magazine: Kiribati’s Porcupine-Fish Helmets were More about Drama than Defense

Atlas Obscura: The Mystery of the Puffer-Fish Helmets of Kiribati

Pacific Presences: Fighting Fibres: Kiribati Armour and Museum Collections

Time Magazine: Why Indigenous Artifacts Should be Returned to Indigenous Communities

The Museum of New Zealand: Te tauti from Kiribati

Denver Art Museum: Shark-Tooth Sword

These bottles were created and used as unguentaria (otherwise known as balsamaria) which are ancient vessels that were typically filled with scented oils, cosmetic powders, balms, or ointments. Unguentaria could be crafted from ceramic, glass, or stone, and they came in various shapes and sizes, but dove-shaped vessels made of glass were especially popular during the second half of the 1st century CE, when they were produced and distributed throughout the Roman Empire.

Above: a dove-shaped unguentarium with residue from the original contents still visible inside

Each bottle was crafted from blown-glass that was carefully modeled into the shape of a bird; the inner cavity was then filled with perfume or cosmetic powder, and the tip of the tail was reheated and compressed, effectively sealing the vessel.

Above: dove-shaped vessels that were opened and emptied long ago, c.50-100 CE

As this article explains:

The vessels were produced with glass blowing pipes by so-called "free blowing," and are for this reason extremely thin-walled, with body thicknesses significantly below 0.1 cm.

After the containers had been filled, the tail feathers were sealed airtight by reheating to protect the contents from moisture. Parts of the containers, such as the head or tail feathers, had to be broken off in order to access the contents of the vessels, which means that they were disposable packaging.

Above: vessels with the tips of their tails broken off

Most of these bottles were made from clear or pale blue Roman glass, but some were crafted with a dark blue, green, purple, or yellow appearance instead:

As cheap, mass-produced goods, the packaging consisted mainly of the conventional thin-walled and transparent Roman glass with an unintentional light blue colouring. Specimens made of intentionally coloured transparent glass (e.g. dark blue, dark green, violet or yellow) are less common. This may also have to do with the fact that the pink or white contents could be visually better distinguished and marketed if the vessels were made of the conventional Roman glass, which offered more transparency to the beholder than the intentionally coloured glass.

Above: a sealed unguentarium that likely contains scented oils and cosmetic residue, from Rovesenda, Italy, c.50 CE

Research suggests that many of these bottles were filled with powder, including pink substances that have been described as "blush" or "rouge," while others were filled with liquid.

Above: more dove-shaped unguentaria from the Roman Empire

Vessels with this design (which is also known as Isings form 11) have been unearthed at Roman-era sites located throughout Europe:

Evidence shows that these glass containers were widely marketed in the Roman Empire. The main areas of distribution are the central and northern Italian regions of Campania et Latium, Venetia et Histria, and Transpadana, along with the northwestern provinces of Gallia Belgica, Gallia Lugdunensis, Germania inferior and Germania superior [in what is now Italy, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the Netherlands].

There is also evidence from the Balkan and Danube region in the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia, and also from the eastern Mediterranean in the provinces of Achaea, Creta et Cyrenae and Macedonia. The distribution in the western Mediterranean seems to be limited to Hispania Tarraconensis.

Above: the severed heads of two bird-shaped unguentaria

Sources & More Info:

Glassware and Glassworking in Thessaloniki: 1st Century BC-6th Century AD: Bird-Shaped Inguentaria (Isings Form 11)

The Austrian Archaeological Institute: New Finds of Bird-Shaped Glass Vessels with Residues of their Former Content

The British Museum: Roman Perfume Bottle in the Shape of a Bird

Società Friulana di Archeologia: Glass Doves and Globes from Thessaloniki: North Italian Imports or Local Products?

Analytical Chemistry for Archaeology and Cultural Heritage: Compositional Analysis of Greco-Roman Unguentaria Residues

I took these photos nearly 15 years ago, during my first trip to Georgia (the country, not the state). They depict the Abudelauri lakes of northern Georgia, which are located roughly 20km from the border with Chechnya. The vibrant, greenish-blue appearance of the water is caused by glacial sediments that reflect the surrounding glaciers and meadows.

According to local mythology, the Abudelauri lakes mark the spot where the last great devi (a many-headed giant) was slain by the demi-god Iakhsar, and the colorful pools are actually filled with the giant's blood. Other legends claim that the lakes were originally formed by a meteorite.

These high-altitude lakes are surrounded by glaciers, rolling hills, volcanic debris, and fields of wild rhubarb, and the entire site has a dream-like quality that I can't quite describe. Hiking through this part of Georgia feels a little bit like traveling to the top of the world -- especially at night, when the glaciers are framed by stars.

I've written lots of posts about Georgia and its history, but I just wanted to share some of my own photos from this region, because words don't really do it justice.

More Info:

Georgia Through its Legends, Folklore and People: The Legend of Lake Abudelauri (PDF)

Georgia Tourism: The Abudelauri Lakes

All Geo: Georgian Mythology: Key Characters and Concepts

The scientific name of this species is Myotis sibiricus, but it's commonly known as the Siberian whiskered bat. It has the longest lifespan of any bat in the world, with some individuals living to be more than 40 years old.

This species was originally identified as a subspecies of the Brandt's bat, Myotis brandtii, but genetic studies now confirm that it actually represents its own distinct species.

Above: a Siberian whiskered bat

In 1964, a Siberian whiskered bat was captured, tagged, and released by researchers in the Biryusa region of Siberia, and the exact same bat was later recaptured by another team of scientists in 2005; that specimen was at least 41 years old at the time, and it's still the oldest bat on record. The previous record-holder was another Siberian bat that was at least 38 years old at the time of its capture.

The genus Myotis contains several other species that have been known to live for more than 20 years, but the Siberian whiskered bat has an exceptionally long lifespan, especially compared to other small mammals.

Above: the bats tend to look like fuzzy little potatoes

The longevity of this species (and other long-living bats) defies our conventional understanding of the relationship between an animal's size and its lifespan. Smaller animals typically have a much shorter lifespan compared to larger animals, because they have higher metabolic demands. These bats are a rare exception to that rule.

In fact, the Siberian whiskered bat has the longest lifespan of any mammal relative to its size, with its tiny body measuring just 3-5cm long and weighing 4-8 grams (that's roughly the weight of 3 pennies).

Above: Myotis sibiricus

Research suggests that the bats' longevity could be linked to a mutation in two genes that are related to growth:

Genes for two proteins involved in growth — called growth hormone receptor (GHR) and insulinlike growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) — showed changes that also appear among other long-lived bat species. Previous studies in mice and other animals suggest genetic changes in GHR and IGF1R are linked with longevity. For instance, mice with mutations in GHR live twice as long as normal mice. These same genetic changes also may be responsible for the bats' small size.

Above: this photo shows a group of Siberian whiskered bats roosting together on the roof of a cave

There are several other factors that could also play a role, as this article explains:

Many behaviors have been suggested as influences of how long bats can live, including cave roosting (which may offer protection) and how many pups a female has each year (more is energy draining). A key factor in bat lifespan that is firmly established is hibernation. Comparing bats that do and do not hibernate shows that hibernating bats have a higher longevity quotient.

Comparing the DNA of bats with a high and low longevity quotient also highlights genes that contribute to longevity. These genes control cellular activities like DNA repair, cleaning out cell waste, and tumor suppression.

Above: Siberian whiskered bats

Some articles on this topic still describe the world's longest-living bat as the Brandt's bat, but that claim is based on the outdated assumption that Myotis sibiricus is simply a subspecies of Myotis brandtii. These bats are now recognized as two separate species, which means that Myotis sibiricus is actually the oldest bat species on record.

Above: Myotis sibiricus

This is a corrected version of a post that I published about 2 years ago, with more information, photos, and sources.

Sources & More Info:

Bat Conservation International: Long Live Bats

Cell Metabolism: The World Goes Bats: Living Longer and Tolerating Viruses

Plazi Treatment Bank: Myotis sibiricus

Entomological Review: Ectoparasite Fauna of the Siberian Bat (PDF)

Science: Growing Old, Yet Staying Young: The Role of Telomeres in Bats’ Exceptional Longevity

The Journals of Gerontology: A New Field Record for Bat Longevity

Nature: Genome Analysis Reveals Insights into Physiology and Longevity of the Brandt's Bat

New Scientist: Gene Clues May Explain Why Brandt's Bat Lives So Long

Above: Amerila astreus with two large globs of defensive froth

Moths of the genus Amerila are often described as frother moths because they're able to secrete a frothy, foul-tasting substance that helps to deter predators. The fluid is produced by the prothoracic glands, which are located near the base of each wing (just behind the moth's head) and a distinctive "sizzling" or "hissing" sound is emitted as the frothy substance bubbles out.

Above: Amerila astreus

As this article explains:

If molested, resting adults produce quantities of a frothy, orange fluid from their prothoracic glands, accompanied by a sizzling sound. The froth not only has an aversive odor to humans but also contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) which are taste-repelling.

Above: a frother moth producing its defensive secretion

The adult moths of this genus are pharmacophagous, which means that they acquire the chemicals that are used to create their defensive froth by ingesting plants that contain toxic or noxious compounds; those chemicals are then sequestered within the moth's own body, where they are repurposed and transformed into a frothy secretion.

Above: genus Amerila

Frother moths also use aposematic markings to advertise their toxicity and/or unpalatability. Each moth has reddish-pink markings on its legs, thorax, and abdomen, along with black spots that stand out against its mostly-white body.

Above: Amerila crokeri and Amerila rubripes

The genus Amerila contains dozens of species, and they are all known to have these defense mechanisms. They are widely distributed throughout many different parts of the world; depending on the species, they may be found in the Himalayas, Indochina, Southeast Asia, Melanesia, Australia, or Africa.

Above: Amerila crokeri

There are a few other moths from the same subfamily (Arctiinae) that can produce a similar defensive secretion when threatened, but the color, consistency, and composition of the substance differs greatly from one species to the next -- and the moths of genus Amerila are certainly the most dramatic.

Sources & More Info:

iNaturalist: Genus Amerila

Metamorphosis Australia: Australian Arctiid Moths

Australian Lepidoptera: Amerila crokeri

Metamorphosis Australia: Weird and Wonderful Moths

Entomo Brasilis: Defensive Froth in Arctiidae Species in the Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil (PDF)

Moths of Australia: Adult Adaptations for Survival

This necklace was discovered at a site known as Armaziskhevi, which is located near the city of Mtskheta, in modern-day Georgia. It was created nearly 2,000 years ago, at a time when Mtskheta served as the capital of ancient Kartli (otherwise known as the Kingdom of Iberia).

Above: side-views of the openwork chain and medallion

This article describes the intricate design of the necklace:

The most striking item from Armaziskhevi is an openwork necklace studded with garnets; the medallion is decorated with alternating petal-shaped garnets and turquoises. Concave garnets and granulation are intricately woven into the openwork chain, and the massive rosette with red and blue petals adds to the luxurious effect of this outstanding piece of jewellery.

Above: the necklace viewed from above

Another stunning necklace from the same site was featured in one of my previous posts.

Above: the other necklace from Armaziskhevi, c.100 CE

Both of these necklaces were unearthed from the necropolis at Armaziskhevi, which is a site that was once used by members of the local aristocracy, including the provincial governors (Pitiakhshv) and high-ranking nobles (Eristavi) of ancient Kartli and Iberia.

Sources & More Info:

Hadrian and the Christians: Georgia in Roman Times

Atinati: Armazi Golden Treasure

This short-sword (also known as an akinakes) was unearthed during excavations at Filippovka, which is an archaeological site located in the Ural Mountains of Russia. It was created by Sarmatian nomads nearly 2,500 years ago, and it's mostly made of iron, with gold and silver inlay decorating the pommel, hilt, and blade.

Above: a full view of the sword

According to this article:

Narrative compositions unfold on the edges of the blade from its different sides; the hilt is designed with images of a wild boar and poorly preserved images of deer. Both sides of the blade are decorated with complex compositions of walking animals and anthropomorphic scenes. The decorative scheme is a linearly rhythmic composition, complicated by scenes of animal torment as well as anthropomorphic scenes: a horseback rider hunting with a spear in front of a wild boar, the death of a warrior with a sword in his stomach, two warriors sacrificing a deer with swords, and a warrior with an axe swinging at a deer.

The inlay on the blade and hilt of the sword was made using different technologies, so it is possible that not only one master but a team took part in the production of the sword.

Above: some of the details that decorate the blade

This artifact was discovered in a barrow that contained the remains of a 50-55 year old man, along with 200 arrowheads, a spear, and a set of scale armor. The barrow itself was positioned next to a sacrificial area in which several animal skins, the legs of four large predatory quadrupeds, and the skeleton of a predatory bird (possibly a hawk or an eagle) had also been buried.

Many Sarmatian artifacts have been found throughout the larger site complex.

Above: a Sarmatian vessel from Filippovka, c.450 BCE

The Sarmatians were ancient Iranian nomads who dominated the steppes of Eastern Europe from roughly 500 BCE to 300 CE, and they formed part of the larger group of cultures that are sometimes collectively referred to as the Scythian or Scytho-Siberian peoples.

Above: more Sarmatian artifacts from the same site, c. 450-350 BCE

Several Scytho-Siberian artifacts have previously been featured on my blog, including an antlered horse headdress, a 2,300-year-old saddle blanket, a plush bird, and three more headdresses that were originally worn by horses.

Sources & More Info:

Journal of Ancient History and Archeology: Ceremonial Akinakes from Filippovka

American Journal of Archaeology: New Excavations of the Early Nomadic Site at Filippovka (PDF)

Situating Eurasia in Antiquity: Nomadic Material Culture in the First Millennium BCE: Golden Swords of the Early Nomads of Eurasia

Journal of Archaeometry: Silver and Iron Finds from the Early Sarmatian Barrows of Filippovka

Metropolitan Museum of Art: The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes

Above: my dad holding me as a baby

I don't normally write posts about my personal life, but I feel like I need to say this, because my dad was such a wonderful person.

Above: the two of us back in 2015

He dedicated his life to helping people -- especially my mom. Her mental health completely collapsed when I was 8 years old. She developed schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, began having psychogenic seizures, and then developed an addiction to opiates. Her mental illness was completely debilitating, and she spent the next 10 years just alternating between psychotic episodes, suicide attempts, and overdoses.

My dad desperately wanted to understand what was happening to her. He had only ever worked in retail, but at the age of 49, he decided to change careers -- he enrolled in a local community college, where he earned a degree in psychology, and then he went on to earn a Master's Degree in Social Work, eventually becoming a licensed counselor. Throughout all of this, he was also taking care of my mom, raising my brothers and me, and finding a way to put food on the table. We were always poor, and my mom's medical bills were overwhelming, but he still managed to support us by working nightshifts, getting food stamps, and taking out student loans.

Above: my parents on their wedding day in 1972, when they were both just 18 years old

Because of my dad, I learned how to recognize the warning signs whenever my mom was in crisis -- how to tell whenever she was hallucinating, when she was suicidal, overdosing, or about to have a seizure. He taught me how to comfort her, to keep her calm and call for help. It saved her life on more than one occasion. We just had to keep her safe until she and her doctors could find a treatment plan that actually worked -- and after a while, they did. She managed to get back on her feet, and her mental health eventually improved. She's been stable for nearly 15 years now. It was her own strength that got her through that, of course, but my dad's support made an enormous difference.

Above: dad holding a kitten that he adopted on Father's Day in 2010

When I came out as a lesbian, my dad was the very first person that I told, and his support was unwavering. He hung a Pride flag on our front porch, and it's been there for nearly 20 years. When I decided to leave the Christian church, he supported me then, too, and he always encouraged me to ask questions and to explore my own beliefs, wherever they might lead. He made it clear that he just wanted me to be happy.

Above: hanging out together at Emerald City Comic Con

We also shared a love of comic books, sci-fi, and pop culture. My dad had been collecting comics since the 1950s, and our lives often revolved around that shared hobby. It was a wonderful escape from all of the stress and trauma that I faced as a kid.

We attended several comic book conventions every year. We often had our own vendor's booth at Jet City Comic Show, where we would sell and trade comic books along with my own sci-fi replicas and artwork. We would often dress up in cosplay together, and we attended Free Comic Book Day at the same shop every year for 25 years in a row.

Above: photos from our booth at Jet City Comic Show

My dad was a big goofball who loved comic books, MST3K, cartoons, and toys, even when he was in his 70s, but he was also a wonderful counselor and a dedicated social worker, and he helped countless people throughout his career. He worked with a lot of vulnerable communities, providing access to resources like counseling, healthcare, housing, rehab, financial assistance, and community support. He was an incredible father and a loving husband who was married for 53 years; he was also unwaveringly kind and open-minded, an outspoken feminist, an ally, a human rights advocate, and just an all-around wonderful person. He was my best friend.

Above: the photo on the left shows my dad cosplaying as Luke Skywalker, while the photo on the right shows the two of us together, with me in my Wasp costume

I will never stop being proud of the man that he was, or of the many wonderful things that he accomplished throughout his life. I'm so lucky to have had him as my father...and I am truly heartbroken by the fact that he's gone. His illness came on so suddenly, and I never really got the chance to say goodbye. I just wish I could tell him how much I love him and miss him, and how proud I am to be his daughter.

Above: my dad sitting with my brothers and me in 1992

He truly made the world a kinder, gentler place.

Above: the photo at the top shows a mason bee building its nest, while the illustration at the bottom shows the nest's internal structure

Bees of the family Megachilidae typically build their nests in the gaps and crevices in tree stumps, rocks, plant stems, and wooden structures, but there are a few species that prefer to nest in discarded snail shells. Most of these shell-nesting bees are found in Europe, North Africa, and the Near East; a few can also be found in North America, South Africa, and Japan.

Above: just some cozy little mason bees, Hoplitis zandeni and Osmia rufohirta

These are solitary bees, meaning that they don't form colonies or live together in hives, so each female builds her own individual nest. The nest is constructed as a series of brood cells, and each cell contains a single egg with enough pollen and nectar to sustain the larva until it reaches adulthood.

Shell-nesting mason bees are known to exist in at least five different genera, including Osmia, Hoplitis, Rhodanthidium, Wainia, and Protosmia.

Above: Osmia spinulosa and Rhodanthidium septemdentatum

When the female is ready to nest, she carefully selects a shell and then drags it into a shaded or well-hidden spot. Moving the shell is no easy feat, but she clings to it with her hind legs and pulls herself along by grabbing objects with her mandibles. A single bee may travel like that for several meters before finally settling on the right spot to prepare her nest.

Above: Osmia rufohirta dragging her shell into position

This article describes how the nest is then constructed:

The bee begins to build its nest, mainly within the “whorl” or spire of the shell. A typical nest consists of a few chambers (about two or four in number, depending on the size of the shell) known as cells, the walls of which consist of masticated leaf pulp known as leaf mastic. When fresh, the colour of this material is bright green, but with time, it assumes a brownish or black colour. Each cell is provisioned with a mixture of pollen and nectar, an egg is laid on this, and the cell sealed with further leaf mastic.

Above: two nests with their internal structures partially exposed, revealing the brood cells, larvae, pollen, nectar, and several layers of debris

The layout of the nest varies depending on the species, with some bees producing brood cells that are arranged into rows, while others create clustered or overlapping cells.

Above: the nest of a gold-fringed mason bee, Osmia aurulenta

The female must make dozens of trips just to gather the provisions for a single brood cell, and completing the entire nest can take days.

Once the brood chambers have been constructed and provisioned, the entrance to the shell is "bricked up" with several layers of plant pulp, soil, pebbles, and shell fragments. In some cases, the female will also apply patches of plant pulp to the outer surface of the shell as a way to provide camouflage.

Above: Oamia bicolor and Osmia aurulenta sealing their nests with plant pulp

The completed nest is then carefully maneuvered so that the entrance faces the ground. Some females will conceal the nest beneath a pile of twigs, pine needles, and plant stems, weaving moss and blades of grass throughout the pile. All of the debris is carefully selected, positioned, and then "glued" together with saliva, forming a tangled, tent-like structure over the nest.

Above: Osmia bicolor, commonly known as the red-tailed mason bee. constructing a protective thatch over her nest

In other cases, the female will conceal the nest by creating a small hole in the sand and then dragging the shell into it, ensuring that the nest is partially buried.

Above: Osmia aurulenta and Osmia rufohirta

This is just one of the many peculiar nesting habits that can be found among solitary bees. Several other examples have been featured in my previous posts, which describe the nest-building strategies of woolcarder bees, resin-pot bees, and a ground-dwelling species known as Osmia avosetta.

Above: the fully-constructed nest of a gold-fringed mason bee

Sources & More Info:

Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists' Society: Shell-Nesting Bees

The Little Book of Bees: Snail-Nesting Mason Bees

University of Hradec Králové: Bees Nesting in Empty Gastropod Shells

Bees of the World: Snail Shells

The Wildlife Trusts: Red-Tailed Mason Bees

Insects: Nesting Preferences of Osmia orientalis

Journal of Hymenoptera Research: Comparative Biology of Four Rhodanthidium Species that Nest in Snail Shells

Journal of Hymenoptera Research: Biology of Palaearctic Wainia Bees of the Subgenus Caposmia

Cambridge University Press: The Native Shell-Nesting Bee Osmia conjuncta

Zootaxa: Palaearctic Osmia Bees of the Subgenera Hemiosmia, Tergosmia and Erythrosmia