GAULS OF THE EAST: PART 1 – BANDITS OF THE BALKANS
In this post I will be covering the rarely spoken of Gauls of southeastern Europe, their invasion of Greece, employment as mercenaries under Ptolemaic Egypt, their rebellious and warlike society as well as their little known kingdom of Tylis in Thrace. I will also cover their weaponry, armors and some archaeological finds.
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The rarely spoken of eastern Gauls lived on the edge of the Hellenistic world, raiders seeking riches and migrants in search of new lands. With the deaths of Alexander his Diadochi (“successors”) squabbled over the remnants of his empire and in their endless bickering, Macedon, Greece and Thrace were greatly weakened. As their fractured Hellenic neighbors struggled to hold their own, these eastern Celts seized the moment to invade and enter this Hellenistic game of thrones. In time these Celts can be seen inhabiting or working as mercenaries from eastern Europe to Egypt in the south and Persia in the east.
^ Celtic Expansion, 3rd century BCE.
According to Titus Livius (Livy, History of Rome, 5.34) the Celtic Bituriges of central Gaul (modern France) held supremacy there and made up one third of Gauls population. The king at the head of the Bituriges (“kings of the world”) was named Ambigatus, a man renowned for leading Gaul into a golden age of prosperity and growth. As Ambigatus grew older he became more concerned about the overpopulation burdening Gaul so he had two of his sister’s sons lead vast multitudes of Gauls elsewhere, settling wherever “the gods should grant them by augury; that they should take out with them as great a number of men as they pleased, so that no nation might be able to obstruct them in their progress”.
One of these sons was named Bellovesus and he would lead “Biturigians, the Arvernians, the Senonians, the Aeduans, the Ambarrians, the Carnutians, and the Aulercians” into Italy where they would become a great menace in the eyes of the Romans. The other brother, Sigovesus, was sent towards the Hercynian forest, a dense woodland on the German side of the Rhine River. This was but one step on this eastern Gallic migration, soon we find both Roman and Greek writers mentioning Celtic peoples in southeastern Europe, north of the Hellenistic world. These Gallic migrants now dwelled in regions south of the Danube River; namely the western borders of Thrace and Dacia with their core territory being just north and within the realm of the Illyrians.
One of the first victims mentioned to fall to these migrating Gauls were the Illyrian Ardiaei, a tribe that would be renowned in later history for their piratical activities in the Adriatic coast, their wars against Rome and their infamous queen Teuta. The Illyrian Ardiaei were known to love getting drunk, eating insatiably and celebrating daily so the Gauls used this to their advantage. The Gauls held a great feast at their camp and then abandoned it in order to lure the Ardiaei into pillaging their camp, the Gauls made sure to “put in the food certain herbs which had the power to cause severe pains and diarrhea.”
“When this had been done some of them were taken by the Celts and put to death, the others threw themselves into the river, being unable to endure the pains in their stomachs.” – The History of Philip by Theopompus.
Philip II’s brother Perdiccas III (both were sons of Amyntas III) lost his life during their conflict with Bardylis of Dardania (Thraco-Illyrians), when Philip II (Alexander the Great’s father) became king of Macedon (ruled, 359-336 BCE) he was successful in defeating and dismantling the Dardanians (Thraco-Illyrians) and some Illyrian tribes. Around this time the Gallic migrants were flooded with Greek armaments and coins which came from Macedonia during Philip II’s reign so it’s believed that these Gauls may have been hired as mercenaries to aid Philip II in defeating the Illyrians.
^ Kingdom of Macedon c.336 BCE.
Gallic mercenaries under Dionysius I of Syracuse
This was, however, not the first time the Greeks had encountered the Celts. While Dionysius I of Syracuse (ruled, 405-367 BCE), also known as Dionysius the Tyrant, was warring against the Greeks of Magna Graecia (“Great Greece”, southern Italy) an embassy of Gauls from northern Italy seeking friendship and allegiance spoke with him. These Gauls were probably from the Senones tribe since they are mentioned to have been the same Gauls that lived in northern Italy and sacked Rome not long ago. Some modern historians believe that said Gauls marched south against the Romans under the direction of Dionysius I of Syracuse.
The reason for this was so, with Rome preoccupied with the Gallic menace, Dionysius could freely attempt to subjugate the whole of Sicily without Roman intervention. Some of those Gauls who warred with Rome were now in southern Italy and dwelled within the “midst of his enemies”, they informed Dionysius that they could “be of great service to him, either by supporting him in the field, or by annoying his enemies in the rear when they were engaged with him” (Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus by Marcus Junianus Justinus, 20.5). In 367 BCE Dionysius I of Syracuse hired them then sent two thousand Celts and Iberians to Greece in order to aid the Spartans against the Boeotian League of Greek nations (ex. Athens, Thebes and Corinth).
“From Sicily, Celts and Iberians to the number of two thousand sailed to Corinth, for they had been sent by the tyrant Dionysius to fight in an alliance with the Lacedaemonians, and had received pay for five months. The Greeks, in order to make trial of them, led them forth; and they proved their worth in hand-to-hand fighting and in battles and many both of the Boeotians and of their allies were slain by them. Accordingly, having won repute for superior dexterity and courage and rendered many kinds of service, they were given awards by the Lacedaemonians and sent back home at the close of the summer to Sicily.” – The Library of History by Diodorus Siculus, 15.70.1.
According to Xenophon, when the Spartans were about to assault the Thebans, Corinthians and Athenians near the city of Corinth “the expedition sent by Dionysius to aid the Lacedaemonians sailed in, numbering more than twenty triremes” arrived to aid them. While the cavalrymen on the side of the Boeotian League were too afraid to attack the larger Spartan army, the 50 horsemen (Celts and/or Iberians) sent by Dionysius advanced on the enemy. These few brave cavalrymen scattered themselves and charged toward the enemy, hurling javelins at their front ranks, retreating from their advance and then returning to again assail them with javelins.
“[21] But the horsemen sent by Dionysius, few though they were, scattering themselves here and there, would ride along the enemy’s line, charge upon them and throw javelins at them, and when the enemy began to move forth against them, would retreat, and then turn round and throw their javelins again. And while pursuing these tactics they would dismount from their horses and rest. But if anyone charged upon them while they were dismounted, they would leap easily upon their horses and retreat. On the other hand, if any pursued them far from the Theban army, they would press upon these men when they were retiring, and by throwing javelins work havoc with them, and thus they compelled the entire army, according to their own will, either to advance or to fall back.
[22] After this, however, the Thebans remained but a few days and then returned home, and the others likewise to their several homes. Then the troops sent by Dionysius invaded the territory of Sicyon, and they not only defeated the Sicyonians in battle on the plain and killed about seventy of them, but captured by storm the stronghold of Deras. After these exploits the first supporting force sent out by Dionysius sailed back to Syracuse.” – Hellenica by Xenophon, 7.1.21-22.
TESTING THEIR HELLENISED NEIGHBORS: “they feared no one, unless it were that Heaven might fall on them”
Embassies to Alexander the Great
After the assassination of Philip II, Alexander III (the Great) claimed the throne in 336 BCE and began securing the hegemony his father had created. In 335 BCE the Gauls sent Alexander an embassy while the latter was campaigning against the Thracians, Getae and Triballi. Many historians believe that their true intent was to probe and evaluate the strength of Alexander’s kingdom.
“Ptolemaeus, the son of Lagus, says that on this expedition the Celti who lived about the Adriatic joined Alexander for the sake of establishing friendship and hospitality, and that the king received them kindly and asked them when drinking what it was that they most feared, thinking they would say himself, but that they replied they feared no one, unless it were that Heaven might fall on them, although indeed they added that they put above everything else the friendship of such a man as he.” – Geography by Strabo. 7.3.8.
After Alexander the Great had successfully defeated the Persians and returned from his Indian campaign, just before his death, the whole of the known world sent embassies to him in Babylon congratulating him in his success and to kiss ass.
“[1] Now from practically all the inhabited world came envoys on various missions, some congratulating Alexander on his victories, some bringing him crowns, others concluding treaties of friendship and alliance, many bringing handsome presents, and some prepared to defend themselves against accusations.
[2] Apart from the tribes and cities as well as the local rulers of Asia, many of their counterparts in Europe and Libya put in an appearance; from Libya, Carthaginians and Liby-Phoenicians and all those who inhabit the coast as far as the Pillars of Heracles; from Europe, the Greek cities and the Macedonians also sent embassies, as well as the Illyrians and most of those who dwell about the Adriatic Sea, the Thracian peoples and even those of their neighbors the Gauls, whose people became known then first in the Greek world.” – The Library by Diodorus Siculus, 17.113.1-2.
Gauls against the Illyrians
The Illyrian Ardiaei were rivals of another, but far greater, Illyrian people known as the Autariatae. At this point the Autariatae were at their peak and held much of Illyria under their sway, from the Dalmatian coast to the borders of Bulgaria. The Autariatae had earlier expelled the mountaineer Triballi (Thracians) and forced the Macedonians to pay them tribute annually.
^ Teuta by Mariusz Kozik.
“The practice of mutilating prisoners may be the reason why the Autariatae killed their own weak and wounded, so that they did not fall into the hands of the enemy live and edible.” – The Illyrians by John Wilkes.
Molistomos (310-298 BCE) was able to overwhelm the Illyrian Autariatae who were already at war with the Paeonians (Thracians, Illyrians or both), these fractured Paeonians refugees were then settled by the Macedonians under Cassander (a Diadoch) who settled twenty thousand of them on their border as a buffer. While here Cassander marched a force to the slopes of Mount Haemus (Balkan mountains of central Bulgaria) where he defeated a force of Gauls constructing ramparts. In passages from Pliny the elder (‘Natural History’) and a fragmentary text (mentioned below) there is mention of a plague of frogs and mice who torment their neighbors, some historians believe that in actuality this is but a metaphor for the Gauls.
“During these transactions, Cassander, returning from Apollonia, fell in with the [Autariatae], who, having abandoned their country on account of the vast number of frogs and mice that infested it, were seeking a settlement. Fearing that they might possess themselves of Macedonia, he made a compact with them, received them as allies, and assigned them lands at the extremity of the country.” – Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus by Marcus Junianus Justinus, 15.2.
“Somewhere in Paeonia and Dardania frogs fell from the sky like rain and there were so many that the houses and streets were full of them. During the first days the people somehow bore it by destroying them and shutting up the houses. But as this achieved nothing, and their very cooking pots got filled with frogs which got boiled and baked with the food, and neither could the water be drunk, nor could men put foot to the ground for the multitude of them, and as the stink from the dead creatures was odious, the people abandoned their homeland.” – Heraclides, fragment 3, FHG vol. 3.
^ Kingdom of Macedon under Cassander.
This loss showed the Gauls that it was not yet time to invade as their Hellenised neighbors were still too powerful. The Gauls stationed themselves on the borders of the Hellenised world for some time; from here future campaigns against the Thracians, Macedonians and the Greeks would soon be launched. After the death of Cassander, Diadoch and king of Macedonia, a Gallic chief named Cambaules led a force against the Thracians but still the Gauls feared the military strength and multitude which the Macedonians and Greeks held so they ended their campaign and returned.
“But when they resolved a second time to carry their arms into an enemy’s country—a step to which they were chiefly instigated by the men who had been out with Cambaules, and in whom the experience of marauding had bred a love of plunder and booty—a large force of infantry assembled, and there was no lack of recruits for the cavalry.” – The Description of Greece by Pausanias.
It seemed as though, despite the loss of the great military minds of Alexander the Great, his Diadochi or “successors”, were still too powerful for the Gauls to overwhelm. Their next expedition would have to be timed at a moment when Macedonia and the Greeks were divided and weakened. This opportunity arose when, in the matter of three years, three great Diadochi passed away. Each of these three had established their own independent realms from the fragments of Alexander’s empire.
Ptolemy I Soter, founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt (Hellenistic Egypt), died in 283/2 BCE.
Lysimachus founder of the Lysamichid dynasty of Hellenistic Thrace, Asia Minor and co-ruler of Macedonia, died in a battle against Seleucus I Nicator in 281 BCE.
Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid dynasty of the Near East and Greater Persia, was assassinated in 281 BCE shortly after his victory over Lysimachus.
^ Wars of the Diadochi c.279 BCE [Source].
Ptolemy Ceraunus, ‘the thunderbolt’
With the deaths of these three major Diadochi, Gallic chief Bolgios chose a very opportune moment to assault the Macedonians and Thracians as they were both reorganizing under their new kings and were locked into a game of thrones. The Diadoch Lysimachus fell in the Battle of Corupedium against the Diadoch Seleucus I Nicator, shortly after the latter was assassinated by Ptolemy (son of Ptolemy I Soter) who then claimed the Macedonian throne for himself. This Ptolemy was also given the nickname ‘Ceraunus’, “thunderbolt”, for his daring initiative.
^ Marble bust of Lysimachus. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli (Archaeological Museum), Italy.
“The assassin (Ptolemy Ceraunus) gave up the treasures to the guards to plunder, and reigned over Macedonia until, venturing to give battle to the Gauls (he was the first king we know of who did so)” – The Description of Greece by Pausanias.
“Bolgius marched against the Macedonians and Illyrians, and engaged in conflict with Ptolemy, then king of Macedonia. It was this Ptolemy who first sought the protection of Seleucus (I Nicator), son of Antiochus, and then assassinated his protector, and whose excessive daring earned him the nickname of Thunderbolt (Ceraunus).” – The Description of Greece by Pausanias.
Plutarch writes that Ptolemy Ceraunus was heavily plagued by nightmares stemming from his betrayal and assassination of Seleucus I Nicator, namely he dreamt that he was “cited to the judgment-seat by Seleucus, where wolves and vultures were his judges” (Plutarch). Ptolemy was well aware of the Gallic approach but dismissed them as being any true threat, his pride and overconfidence led him to even dismiss the aid of twenty thousand men offered by Dardanians (Thraco-Illyrians) for the purpose of defeating their Gallic neighbors
^ A Roman copy of a Greek statue of Seleucus I found in Herculaneum. Now located at the Naples National Archaeological Museum.
“An embassy from the Dardanians, offering him twenty thousand armed men, for his assistance he spurned, adding insulting language, and saying that “the Macedonians were in a sad condition if, after having subdued the whole east without assistance, they now required aid from the Dardanians to defend their country; and that he had for soldiers the sons of those who had served under Alexander the Great, and had been victorious throughout the world.” This answer being repeated to the Dardanian prince, he observed that “the famous kingdom of Macedonia would soon fall a sacrifice to the rashness of a raw youth.”” – Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus by Marcus Junianus Justinus, 24.4.
The Gauls under Bolgius sent envoys to Ptolemy Ceraunus, offering him peace in exchange for a fee but Ptolemy refused and boasted to his courtiers “that the Gauls sued for peace from fear of war.” Ptolemy told the ambassadors, right in front of the Gallic envoys, that he would only grant them peace if they turned their chiefs over to him as hostages and gave up their arms. When the Gallic envoys returned and relayed the message the Gauls laughed it off and said that they would show Ptolemy Ceraunus “would soon see whether they had offered peace from regard for themselves or for him.” Bolgius lead a force against Ptolemy Ceraunus, defeated them in battle, beheaded Ptolemy, placed his head on a spear, paraded it before his own people and executed or sacrificed the Macedonian captives.
^ Concord - Ancient Celts.
“-and the Macedonians were defeated and cut to pieces. Ptolemy, after receiving several wounds, was taken, and his head, cut off and stuck on a lance, was carried round the whole army to strike terror into the enemy. Flight saved a few of the Macedonians; the rest were either taken or slain” – Epitome of Philippic History by Justin, 24.5.
“Ptolemy himself fell in the battle, and the Macedonian loss was heavy; but again the Celts had not the courage to march against Greece, and so the second expedition returned home again” – The Description of Greece by Pausanias.
Bolgius didn’t follow up this victory, their momentum was eventually stunted by a nobleman and officer named Sosthenes who took on the title of strategos (general) rather than a kingly title. Defeated, the Gauls under Bolgius returned to their base of operations with their riches. Although thoughts of a successful invasion seemed bleak, the fateful tides were now turning in their favor. More Gauls back home were inspired by the promise of riches in a domain now showing signs of instability as the Macedonian throne was being pass from person to person.
Ptolemy Ceraunos, who ruled from 281–279 BCE was killed by Bolgius, as stated above.
Meleager, the brother of Ptolemy Ceraunos, ruled for two months before being forced to resign by his own troops in 279 BCE.
Antipater ruled for such a short time (45 days) that he was nicknamed Etesias (“annual wind”), brief summer winds. Antipater Etesias.
Sosthenes, the nobleman mentioned above, deposed Antipater Etesias and ruled as strategos (general) of Macedonia from 279-276 BCE.
Now, this force led by Bolgius was but one of three who were to lead a massive invasion of the Balkan Peninsula, according to Pausanias’ ‘Description of Greece’:
“Bolgius marched against the Macedonians and Illyrians, and engaged in conflict with Ptolemy, then king of Macedonia.”
“Cerethrius was to lead his force against the Thracians and the Triballian tribe”.
“Brennus and Acichorius commanded the army destined to attack Paeonia”.
THE GREAT GALLIC INVASION OF GREECE: “with the wine which they had drunk the day before, rushed to battle without any fear of danger”
The second branch of this three pronged invasion was under Brennus, the Gallic chieftain who urged the Gauls to invade at this particular moment since the whole of the Balkan Peninsula was in a chaotic and weakened state.
“Hereupon Brennus, at public assemblies and in private interviews with the leading men, energetically urged an expedition against Greece, pointing to the present weakness of Greece, to the wealth of her public treasuries, and to the still greater wealth stored up in her sanctuaries in the shape of offerings and of gold and silver coin.” – The Description of Greece by Pausanias.
The second invading Gallic army was numbered at “one hundred and fifty-two thousand foot, and twenty thousand four hundred horse”. Due to an interesting cavalry system the horsemen were actually numbered three times larger than stated above, this cavalry system is referred to as the ‘trimarkisia’ (tri = “three”, marcos = “war-horsemen”). Following the trimarkisia organizational system, each mounted warrior was assisted by two mounted slaves who would provide said warrior with a fresh mount if theirs were to die or tire. If said mounted warrior were to be wounded or perish in the midst of combat, one of his slaves would retrieve the body of the fallen and return it to camp while the other would take their lord’s place on the battlefield. The trimarkisia is believed by some to have been descendant from or inspired by the chariot system of having allied guards, servants, runners or skirmishers.
“These tactics, it seems to me, were copied by the Gauls from the Persian corps of the Ten Thousand, known as the Immortals. The difference was that in the Persian corps the places of the dead were filled up by enlistment after the action, while with the Gauls the squadron was brought up to its full strength on the field of battle.” – The Description of Greece by Pausanias.
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