Hey. I was wondering about the Byzantine military. Could you outline the changes it saw during the roughly two-and-half century period between Charlemagne's ascension around 800 and that of Alexios Komnenos?
Well, at the time of Charlemagneās ascension, the one on the Throne was the Empress Eirene, and depending on who you ask, her in the purple was one of the reasons why Charlemagne was crowned āEmperor of the Romans.ā That is a very sketchy idea, of course, and depends largely on which sources you believe (Charlemagne stated he was surprised by being coronated, other analysts differ; he did not claim the Eastern Roman Empire but that could easily be because had no ability to take and/or rule it). Interestingly enough, though we have only one source for it, Eirene apparently endeavored to marry Charlemagne and unite the Byzantine and Carolignian Empires.
Anyway, at the time, there were three essential components: the themata, the tagmata, and the hetaireia. The tagmata was the core Byzantine professional troops. These were heavy cavalry and highly-skilled, similar to a lordly retinue in formed a core, later regional counts would control their own tagmata. The themata were the Byzantine organizational system for the other provinces as Iāve mentioned before, was the organizational element for levies and a payment system of state-owned landholdings used for military service, an organizational method that was cheaper and more efficient than feudal lords amassing levies. The hetaireia was a retinue of foreign, paid mercenaries charged with similar duties to the tagmata.
Early on the Byzantine empire, facing wars from three directions, lost key territories, notably most of Sicily, Sardinia, and Crete, a decline that would go until around 867 (though Syracuse fell a few years later). In the mid-eighth century, with the heartland of Byzantium threatened, the Emperors established the kleisoura, fortified mountain districts around the Taurus and Anti-Taurus mountains, as special frontier regions, similar to marches of Europe or the al-thughur of the Abbasid and Umayyad caliphates (the later of these literally included the other side of the Byzantine ones), whose chief concern was protection and thus were afforded more autonomy. The Byzantines expanded their naval capabilities as is documented multiple times in their military manuals. Following the stabilization of 867 and the ascension of Basil I the Macedonian, the Empire began a reversal of its fortunes, securing Taranto and the Italian peninsula as well as eastern conquests into territory lost to the Arab and Bulgar conquests.
In the tenth century, we see a shift in several things. First off, the Armenian themes, smaller 1,000-man divisions, were established during the consolidation of eastern conquests. We also see a push more toward reconnaissance and light infantry and raiding as the Arabs and Byzantines would regularly raid each other. More foreigners would come to court and this included foreign mercenaries, the most famous being the Varangian Guard, established after the Christianization of the Kievan Rus. The warrior-emperors, Nikepheros II Phokas, John I Tzimiskies, and Basil the Bulgar-Slayer would each put their stamp on the Byzantine army. Nikepheros introduced a new type of short pike for ultraheavy cavalry meant to shatter formations, as well as a pike and bow formation for infantry that was one of the first of its kind. John I emphasized unit initiative and officer judgment that had made him so successful, and Basil was notable for his generalship, but he also made an effective and fair arrangement with poor farmers and increased their power by taxing the nobility and Church in order to seize funding for his campaigns. This made supply problems much easier in Byzantine territory, as farmers often gladly sold or donated supplies to his army on campaign. Basil II also invested heavily in artillery, headed by his talented general Nikepheros Ouranos
Unfortunately, the successes of these three generals caused a lack of investment in the themata, who increasingly paid a scutage tax rather than train their soldiers (or just avoided training as often as they should). As a result, when the new Turkish conquests came, only the tagmata and the foreign mercenaries were effective, the themata were corrupt and thus the Empire had no strategic depth, a bad loss by the tagmata imperiled the whole of the Empire. At Manizkert in 1071, this decline was on full display, and this lasted until Alexios established his own Komnennian army (though this process was begun by the eunuch Nikephoritzes), which was later perfected by John II and Manuel I.
Thanks for the question, Calagon.
SomethingLikeALawyer, Hand of the King
