Actual AP Test Prep? Maybe

Essentially Muscovy brought all sorts of people and money to the northeastern portion of Kievan, Russia. It was a complete revolution with new trade links to the Baltic Sea, the White Sea, and the Caspian Sea and to Siberia. It also reshaped Russian politics by making a highly centralized and autocratic political system. This was the predecessor of Tsarism in Russia.

Alright, what you need to keep in mind is that this is essentially a compare and contrast essay dealing with a time period or region rather than two stories or anything you would have to compare for an English exam. You want to focus on what has changed and what has not. You need to remain specific and on topic, a major mistake is getting off topic or remaining vague. You need to prove to know to the reader that you know what’s happening (or at least be very convincing with your bullshit). Have a very specific thesis, this isn’t English, you don’t need to apply this to a main theme or the rest of a novel or any of that shit! You need to be specific. The best advice I have is to study important dates, but more importantly, look at trends. It is gradual changes over time, like technological advances or cultural revolutions, keep those in mind when you review.

Of course!!

WWI important things to remember: 

-This was between the triple entente vs the central powers.

-The US initially was “neutral” even with all of our underhanded dealings with England with the destroyers for bases. (We were essentially playing the ‘I’m not toughing you!’ game.

-It was the sinking of the Lusitania (which was secretly toting guns) after repeated requests for neutrality in the Atlantic which brought the US in. 

-Started by Austria Hungry who dragged poor Germany in who attacked Serbia who brought Russia in, essentially remember that Central Europe was attacking Western Europe plus Russia. 

-During this war, Russia’s Bolshevik revolution occurred (go Lenin!) and imperial Russia fell and the internal conflict caused Russia to withdraw from the war to focus on domestic issues.

-Trench warfare was the source of the massive loss of life for little gain. This was also a war with two fronts, eastern and western. 

-It was a war of attrition.

-The league of nations was established and the Treaty of Versailles led to extreme shame and punishment on Germany which fueled tensions and led to the formation of the Nazi party.

-It created what was called the lost generation, or an entire generation of young men and women who felt at odds with the world around them, large numbers of PTSD sufferers, and an economic boom followed by a worldwide economic depression.

WWII

 -Nationalism was a huge contributer as well as the growing imperial military states which were Germany, Japan, and Italy.

-The European policy of appeasement made this worse.

-Racism played a large role in both the actions of Germany and Japan. For Germany it was antisemitism and for Japan it was towards China and other Asian ethnicities.

-Germany won early on with air superiority and the element of surprise as well as its well disciplined army which most other European countries lacked.

-The US once again attempted to remain neutral, but the attack on Pearl Harbor brought about immediate action.

-The large outflow of male labor led to increases in both female and black labor positions.

-This was a much more aggressive war with more focus on intelligence and internal revolution. (the enigma machine, Vichy France and the resistance, navajo code talkers, Spanish civil war)

-The war in the pacific was ignored for the most part by America until after Germany had been subdued (they were weakened by their assistance to Italy in Africa and the invasion of Russia midwinter)

Cold War

-After nuclear war was first invented during the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, it became a focal point of the cold war.

-Cuban Missile Crisis: tensions between US and Cuba when Cuba obtained nuclear missiles, Russia became involved. Resolved by the removal of the Cuban missiles and the removal of US missiles in Turkey.

-Space Race: Symbolic, NASA vs USSR cosmonauts this was done to show scientific superiority and wealth. Sputnik was the first successful spacecraft, but the US won with the moon landing (yes it happened)

-Rosenberg trial: The Rosenbergs were US citizens who were accused of selling nuclear secrets to the USSR, the trial marked a more public confrontation for a previously secretive issue.

NATO vs Warsaw Pact’: NATO was formed to keep communism at bay (boo) and the Warsaw pact was a reactionary coalition of communist countries.

Domino theory and containment are key

Johann Tetzel (1465-1519) Frair, he was the asshole who sold indulgences for the building of that one über cathedral.

Martain Luther (1483-1546) Catholic priest who kinda gave up after so many catholic failures and created Lutheranism{the first protestant church against catholic faith}

Franz von Sickingen (1481-1523) he helped all the German princes convert-

Huldreich Zwingli (1484-1531) Created the first church of Zwinglianism

Pope Paul III (r. 1534-1549) first of the "reform popes"

Thomas Cranmer (r.1533) Archbishop of Canterbury, granted Henry VIII to divorce cause the catholics were like "you divorced how many times now?" and he was like "fuck you"

John Calvin (1506-1564) Switzerland guy, who said Luther is right except for the thing that we are actually predestined to go to heaven or hell

Southern(Italy and Whatnot) Renaissance:

Giovanni de' Medici: (d. 1429) Merchant and banker of Florence, foundee of the Medici dynasty. He could be considered one of the world's first modern people.

Cosimo de' Medici:(1389-1464) Unofficial ruler of Florence Republic for awhile

Lorenzo The Magnificent: (1449-1492) Ruler of the Republic, official patron of the arts, he wanted to live life rather than wait for its fulfillment after death

Filippo Brunelleschi: (1377-1446) studied Roman buildings and built cathedrals

Leon Battista Alberti: (1404-1472) Filippo Brunelleschi's buddy kinda thing cause they did the same shit

Lorenzo Ghiberti: (1378-1455) sculpted a set of bronze doors for the Florentine baptistery with not only crowds of human figures but the illusion of depth

Giotto: (1267-1337) painted walls on florentine buildings and created the illusion of depth and movement

Masaccio: (1401-1428) used light and shadow, nude figures, and the illusion of perspective.

Sandro Botticelli: (1444-1510)n painted themes from classical mythology such as his Birth of Venus

Raphael: (1483-1520) is considered one of the greatest painters of his era; he epitomizes the Renaissance style

Leonardo da Vinci: (1452-1519): "The Renaissance Man"; painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, writer, scientist

Michelangelo Buonarroti: (1475-1564) sculptor whose sculptures are often credited with the most perfect marble statues. He also did paintings in the Sistine Chapel

Dante: (1265-1321) standardized Italian speech and language which also helped create "modern" writing because it was finally out of Latin! That dick

Petrarch: (1304-1374) considered first "modern" writer

Boccaccio: (1313-1375) THIS BITCH WROTE THE DECAMERON, entertaining that reflect upon the human condition

Leonardo Bruni: (1370-1444) chancellor of the Republic of Florence, he wrote the first modern history, an account of the development of Florence

Baldassare Castiglione: (1478-1529) The Book of The Courtier, a manual for the manners of the modern gentleman

Niccoló Machiavelli: (1469-1499) he wrote The Prince as the first meaningful treatise on political science; how governments rule without moral judgement or exhortation.

Laura Cereta(1469-1499) humanist and early feminist; she (might) have taught at the University of Padua, she is often criticized for her Epistolae familiares cause people got upset about the "gender bias" she had.

Northern Renaissance:

GERMANY AND ENGLAND

Johann Gutenberg: (1400-1468) invented changeable, movable type for the printing press

Regiomontanus(Johann Muller 1436-1476) ALONG WITH Nicolas of Cusa(1401-1464): laid foundation for science and mathematics {fuck them right?}

Copernicus: (1473-1543) kinda like proved heliocentric system

Martin Behaim(1459-1507) and Thomas á Kempis(1380-1471) mysticism {a person alone could talk to God}

Gerard Groote: (1340-1384) Dutch preacher created "Bro's of Common Life" a modern devotion

Erasmus(1456-1536): Gradual Reform of the church, nut still be loyal to it

Albrecht Dürer(1471-1528) artist(portraits and woodblock prints) also a fucking mathematician

Pieter Brueghel the Elder: (1520-1569): focused his painting and prints on ordinary people. Which challenged the whole Renaissance

Christopher Marlowe: (1564-1593) dramatist who helped form modern English

Edmund Spenser: (1552-1599) poet who helped form modern English

Francis Bacon (1564-1616) scientist who also helped form modern English

William Shakes-a lot-spear (1564-1616) yall know this dick right? if not, he is a writer

Sir Thomas More (1478-1535):  helped with contemporary English(also wrote blueprint for perfect society)

FRANCO

Rabelais (1494-1553): attacked French society and church while advocating reform

Montaigne (1533-1592) fucking formated the essay, you dick

SPAINO

Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616) sarersed societys anachronistic glorification of chivalry and medieval institutions in Don Quixote

Lope de Vega: wrote hella dramas

Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (idk) painted magnificent religious pictures

Doménikos El Greco(1541-1614) painted magnificent religious pictures

Diego Valázquez(1599-1660): painted magnificent religious pictures

Francisco Suárez (idk): wrote hella admired works on philosophy and law

LOW COUNTRIES

Jan Van Eyck(1385--1441) Dutch painter

Rembrandt van Rijn(1606-1669) Dutch master (chiaroscuro)

Psychology is error science based on research

Issues with people doing these studies because people are terrible:

Hindsight bias: Once something happens you say "I knew it all along" because humans suck

Overconfidence: Think we know more than we do

Barnum Effect: people accept vague characteristics and apply it to themselves (kinda how horoscopes work)

Applied vs Basic Research:

Applied: clear and practical application, you can use it in life and whatnot

Basic: answers questions you're curious about

Boring but much needed vocabulary (that you're probably going to hate me for because its a rerun of 7th grade science)

Hypothesis: relation between two variables

Variable: anything that can vary among participants

Independent Variable: whatever is being manipulated(could bring change)

Dependent Variable: What is being measured(what we're hoping to find out)

Operational definitions: defining terms(explain what you mean{which if you can't tell I'm not 100% good at}

Sampling: identifying population you want to study(must represent population)

Experimental Method: prove casual relationships

Confounding Variable: anything can change in B that changes in A

Methods of Appeal:

Pathos: This is the emotional appeal. It's really common, think of puppy commercials or starving children. It is meant to sock your audience right in the fucking gut with all the power that the gods of propaganda will give you. It can make you happy and proud, sad and ashamed, or most commonly outraged and disgusted. Most commonly used in commercials or in works of literature. 

Ex. "Friends, Romans, Countrymen. Lend me your ears- someone fucking stabbed Caesar!"

Logos: This is like if Spock decided to say you were wrong (terrifying). It would be a list of facts and statistics interspersed with future projections and stone cold evidence. Most commonly found in scientific papers and official debates where the two sides are actually informed.

Ex.  "Well if you were to look at the recent rise in pay which has leveled at..."

Ethos: This is essentially where one would ride on the curtails of either their reputation or the reputation of their source. If say you wanted to seem knowledgeable about the theory of relativity would you quote Einstein or your next door neighbor? Probably Einstein because his name is well known and his abilities proven.

Ex.  "4 out of 5 doctors recommend."

Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium- Only works with stabilized, non-evolving populations where the allelic frequencies do not change.

Population must be small- in small populations, the slightest change shows

Population must be isolated- nothing bringing in new genes

Must be no mutations- change frequencies

Mating must be random- select mate will have more and change that way

No natural selection- changes frequencies

Now here is this piece of shit equation: p²+2pq+q²=1 or p+q=1

P is the dominant allele 

Q is the submissive or recessive allele

That 2pq is a heterozygous allele

Specialization and Reproductive Isolation

Species: is if two things can reproduce and interbreed and have fertile offspring

Reproductive isolation: one gene becomes isolated and and begins to separate

Specialisation: no longer interbreed

Allopatric Specialization: geographic Isolation

Sympatric Isolation: without geographic isolation

Polyploidy: a cell has more than 2 chromosomes (4 can't breed with 2)

Habit Isolation: 2 organisms live in same area but can't (water snake and land snake that live in same area but can't breed due to exact placement)

Behavioral Isolation: barrier based on behavior, usually in the form of mating rituals and signals.(Some animals have songs that are only recognizable to their own species. They are likely isolated due to the difference some behavior.)

Temporal Isolation: Night vs Day breeding (some flowers mate at different times leading these two to never have time with each other so they just become distant friends)

Reproductive Isolation:  behaviors and physiological processes that prevent the members of two different species that cross or mate from producing offspring, or which ensure that any offspring that may be produced are sterile. (big dog and small dog cannot fuck ya feel?) {but there is also this thing called postzygotic where even if it does work it won't happen}

Patterns Of Evolution:

Divergent: accumulation of differences between groups which can lead to the formation of new species, usually a result of diffusion of the same species to different and isolated environments which blocks the gene flow among the distinct populations allowing differentiated fixation of characteristics through genetic drift and natural selection.  (the vertebrate limb is one example of divergent evolution. The limb in many different species has a common origin, but has diverged somewhat in overall structure and function.)

Convergent: unrelated species in same environment same evolution(the similar nature of the flight/wings of insects, birds, pterosaurs, and bats. All four serve the same function and are similar in structure, but each evolved independently.)

Parallel: the development of a similar trait in related, but distinct, species descending from the same ancestor, but from different clades(its a stupid picture I know)

Coevolution: the change of a biological object triggered by the change of a related object. In other words, when changes in at least two species’ genetic compositions reciprocally affect each other’s evolution, coevolution has occurred.

Adaptation Radiation:  a process in which organisms diversify rapidly into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, creates new challenges and opens environmental niches. Starting with a recent single ancestor, this process results in the speciation and phenotypic adaptation of an array of species exhibiting different morphological and physiological traits with which they can exploit a range of divergent environments.

Modern Theory of Evolution:

Gradualism: organisms descend from a common ancestor, big changes that are shown are a mixture of a metric fuckton of little ones occurred from millions of years

B.F. Skinner: A radical behaviorist, he developed the theory of operant conditioning -- the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur again.

E.L. Thorndike: Through his work and theories, Thorndike became strongly associated with the American school of thought known as functionalism. He is well known for the puzzle boxes he built for cats to escape from.

Albert Bandura: According to the social learning theory there are some necessary traits that are to be adopted while learning in a social situation, these traits are attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and self-regulation. He was responsible for the Bobo doll experiments.

Max Wertheimer: Gestalt psychology formed partly as a reaction to the atomism of the structuralist school of thought. Unlike structuralism, which focused on breaking down mental processes into their smallest possible parts, Gestalt psychology took a holistic approach. According to the Gestalt thinkers, the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.

Abraham Maslow: Created the hierarchy of needs. Starting with physiological it then goes to security, social, esteem, and finally self-actualization.

Wolfgang Kohler:  Kohler attempted to prove that animals arrive at a solution through insight rather than trial and error. His first experiments with dogs and cats involved food being placed on the other side of a barrier.

Harry Harlow: He conducted experiments on the social development of young monkeys. Harlow's work instead demonstrated the absolute importance of developing safe, secure, and supportive emotional bonds with caregivers during early childhood.

Lewis Terman:  Terman's Stanford-Binet IQ tests (later called Stanford Achievement Tests) became a common measurement used in public schools, job aptitude, and military induction tests.

Ivan Pavlov: Considered the inspiration for Behaviourism, his work on classical conditioning with dogs was the foundation for the era where external actions were more highly valued than intrinsic factors.

John Watson (if i hear one Sherlock or John-Lock shit I will kill all of you): He is considered the father of Behaviourism. Working on stimulus conditioning he is most remembered for the unethical “Baby Albert” experiments. Mistress guy.

Wilhelm Wundt:  He founded modern psychology and was associated with the theoretical perspective known as structuralism, which involves describing the structures that compose the mind. He believed that psychology was the science of conscious experience and that trained observers could accurately describe thoughts, feelings, and emotions through a process known as introspection.

Sigmund Freud: Founder of psychoanalysis, he began dream interpretations as a legitimate psychological step. He introduced the Id, Ego, and Superego as well as psychosexual stages. Cocaine addict. (we will have a few posts on him later)

Hermann Ebbinghaus: Hermann Ebbinghaus was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. HOUSEY, can't store ish

Alfred Binet: pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound (French)

Robert Sternberg: intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)

Howard Gardner: devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic

Sleep Waves: When awake, most people exhibit brain wave, (EEG) patterns that can be classified into two types of waves, beta and alpha. Beta waves are those associated with day to day wakefulness. These waves are the highest in frequency and lowest in amplitude, and also more desynchronous than other waves. That is, the waves are not very consistent in their pattern. This desynchrony makes sense given that day to day mental activity consists of many cognitive, sensory, and motor activities and experiences, and, thus, when awake, we are mentally desynchronous as well. Make sense? No? I feel you.

During periods of relaxation, while still awake, our brain waves become slower, increase in amplitude and become more synchronous. These types of waves are called alpha waves. For example, such brain waves are often associated with states of relaxation and peacefulness during meditation and biofeedback. As we will see in future lessons, recent evidence indicates that activities that promote alpha wave activity, appear to have positive health benefits.

The first stage of sleep is characterized by theta waves, which are even slower in frequency and greater in amplitude than alpha waves. The difference between relaxation and stage 1 sleep is gradual and subtle. As the sleeper moves to stage 2 sleep theta wave activity continues, interspersed with two unusual wave phenomena. These phenomena, which occur periodically every minute or so, and are defining characteristics of stage 2 sleep, are termedsleep spindles and K complexes. The former is a sudden increase in wave frequency, and the latter is a sudden increase in wave amplitude. Stages 1 and 2 are relatively "light" stages of sleep. In fact, if someone is awoken during one of these stages, he or she will often report no being asleep at all.

Sleep Stages: Delta Sleep, REM, and the Sleep Cycle

During a normal nights sleep a sleeper passes from the theta waves of stage 1 and 2, to the delta waves of stage 3 and 4. Delta waves are the slowest and highest amplitude brain waves. There is no real division between stages 3 and 4 except that, typically, stage 3 is considered delta sleep in which less than 50 percent of the waves are delta waves, and in stage 4 more than 50 percent of the waves are delta waves. Delta sleep is our deepest sleep, the point when our brain waves are least like waking. Consequently, it is most difficult stage in which to wake sleepers, and when they are awakened they are usually sleepy and disoriented. Interestingly, delta sleep is when sleepwalking and sleep talking is most likely to occur.