#research notes

Xia Dynasty: 2100 - 1600 BCE 

Probably very likely or even most definitely mythical -> the archeological record shows no proof of them ever having existed.

Before them china was ruled by so called “legendary sage emperors”

A guy named Yu had been commissioned by them to find a way to manage to floodings of the Yellow river -> managed to do that and founded the xia dynasty (Madsen 0:34)

Shāng Dynasty: 1600-1050 BCE

Capital near Zhengzhou (Tsin 1)

Bronze artifacts (Madsen 0:58)

Warlike in nature → Similar to the Mycenaeans in ancient Greece. 

Technology regarding Bronze smithing improved throughout this dynasty

Probably invented writing/earliest form of chinese writing attributed to them (Madsen 1:10) 

Jiǎ gǔ wén -> Oracle Bone inscription (Madsen 1:20) -> Writings on bones and turtle shells for divination

Women had a lot more rights during this time and were politically and militarily engaged → Example Fu Hao (Zhao 2022, 3:20)

Ended in a period of decadence and replaced by the Zhou (Madsen1:35)

Cool fact: Shang King Wu Di (Husband of Fu Hao) would travel around his kingdom disguised as a commoner to understand the troubles of the common people better (Zhao 2022, 5:00)

Zhōu Dynasty: 1050 - 256 BCE

Divided into 2 periods: Western Zhōu (1050-771 BCE) and Eastern Zhōu (771-256)

Eastern Zhōu happens at the same time as the Spring and Autumn Period (770-475 BCE) and the Warring states Period (475-221 BCE) 

Capital Western Zhou: Hao (near Xi’an)

Capital Eastern Zhōu: Luoyang (in the province of Henan)

Confusius creates the idea of confucianism around this time (the  -> Huge influence on chinese culture (Tsin 1)

Main rule of Confucianism: “do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you” but “felial Piety”/devotion to the family is equally if not even more important

Idea of Mandate of Heaven is created (Madsen) → Joshua Mark however claims the Mandate of heaven was created under the Shang Dynasty, the Zhou just developed it further (Mark, Han 3)

Mandate of Heaven: A king could only rule if he acted just -> He had the heaven’s favour and was granted the right to rule by the heavens. But the heavens could take that right away from him if he acted unjustly.(Madsen 1:51) → The ruler HAD to look after his people in order to keep the mandate of heaven. 

Kinda like the “Gracie dei” in western medieval kingdoms except your god given right as a king came with conditions 

There will be signs by the heavens before hand -> natural disasters (Madsen 1:55)

Book of Songs was written around this time (taken from personal university class notes)

Functioned under a complex feudalistic system → Decentralised government (Epimetheus 1:50)

The Zhōu decline was long and painful starting with the Spring and Autumn period

In the end China broke into many different kingdoms and states (Zhōu being but one of them)

Warring States Period: 475-221 BCE

The Zhou were, according to Cartwright: “No longer dominant in military terms, the Zhou were forced to rely on armies of other allied states, who on occasion took the opportunity to forward their own territorial claims. For this reason, the Zhou king was compelled to sometimes make the military leader of another state the military leader of the Zhou alliance.” (2) → The greatest of these military leaders received the title of Hegemon. 

By the 4th century BCE 100 smaller states had been “consolidated by conquest” (Cartwright 2) into 7 major states: Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Wei, Yan and Zhao. 

“In each state, the ruler declared himself king and independent of the Zhou empire.” (Cartwright 2)

Basically everyone was fighting everyone at all times. 

It also marked the beginning of China’s use of a cavalry in the military as well as the chineses’ entry into the iron age through the use of iron swords and crossbows (Cartwright 3)

There were still cultural developments despite the constant wars (Cartwright 5)

Metalworking developed (Iron)

 agricultural revolution (Iron tools)

cities grew in size

large defensive walls

 towers were erected

Multi-storey citygates to impress visitors

Rulers’ Palaces became more extravagant 

Marketplaces → Trade

Industrialised pottery and weapon production 

Town planning (Grid pattern similar to Roman and Greek Colonies in the West)

Introduction of bronze coins with a hole in the middle

Philosophy → Writings and contemplation on Confucius, Daoism, Legalism, War Tactics (Sun Tzu)

Qin Dynasty: 221-206 BCE

Before the rise of the Qin Dynasty, the Qin had remained “one of the few states which remained loyal to the Zhou” (Cartwright 4)

Several Qin rulers had received the title of Hegemon from the Zhou kings during this time (Cartwright 4).

Qin conquered all the other nations at the end of the warring states period. 

Reunited China into one nation

Rulers of previous dynasties were called kings (Wáng 王)

the Qin ruler (Qin Shi Huang) invented a new title for himself -> Emperor (Huáng Dì 皇帝）(Madsen)

Qin Shi Huang was known for his brutality and draconian rule

Qin Shi Huang “understood that the Zhous's policy of a decentralized government had contributed to its fall and so established a centralized state which decreased the power of the aristocracy, eliminated the borders between different states, and operated according to the precepts of the philosophy of Legalism”. (Mark, Qin 2)

He forced a unified writing systems onto those he conquered and had hundreds of historians executed and historical records burned ->he wanted to unite the people of China under one shared identity and for the “history of China to start with him”.

But his bookburnings had other reasons → Scholars would write tracts criticising Qin Shi Huang’s rule and comparing it with more benevolent rulers of the past Zhou dynasty and saying Qin Shi Huang was ignoring the mandate of heaven by not caring for his subjects correctly (turning them into slaves) (Mark, Qin 5)

People who tried to hide the history books and writings of past dynasties were also executed (Mark, Qin 5)

But not only history books were burned also “any works expressing the concepts from the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought should also be destroyed including the standard educational texts known as the Four Books and Five Classics from the Zhou Dynasty. Anyone speaking on such topics should be killed and any officers or officials who heard of such conversations and did not report them should be likewise.” (Mark, Qin 5) 

Only medicine and science books were spared. (Mark, Qin 5)

→ Had scholars executed by burying them alive in a mass grave (Madsen 3:40)

“Shi Huangdi suppressed all freedom of speech, had the legal codes rewritten to adhere more closely with his own personal vision.” (Mark, Qin 6)

“A one hit wonder of a dynasty” (Montgomery) 

Joshua Mark: “213 BCE, his need to control every aspect of his subjects' lives, and fear of rebellion, had turned China into a police state in which freedoms were severely limited and the peasant class was reduced to a level of conscript slavery” (2)

Under Qin Shi Huang China saw the first version of the Great Wall (protection against the invading Xiongnu), the Grand Canal, introduction of state coinage, highway constructions, and the terracotta army in his tomb. (Mark, Qin 2) 

Joshua Mark: “His early reign seems, at first glance, a model for any monarch in true leadership and care for his people but Shi Huangdi only interpreted the Mandate of Heaven in terms of his own power and self-importance; his subjects were a means to an end, not an end in themselves. Those who worked on the wall, the canal, and other public projects, if they even were initially paid, quickly became conscripts taken from their homes to labor for scraps of food and communal lodgings.” (Qin 4)

“He encouraged science and discouraged letters” (Mark, Qin 4)

Joshua Mark: “The people's lives under the Qin became harsh, narrow, and more uncertain (..) because government officials could take anyone they wanted to work on the emperor's projects, no matter their social class or occupation. Only the emperor's men were allowed weapons so there was no armed resistance possible and, even if arms had been available, Shi Huangdi's network of spies, secret police, and informants would have revealed a plot before it had a chance to be put into action”. (Qin 5)

Shi Huangdi became increasingly more paranoid as time went on leading to more and more restrictive laws → Scared of usurpation and assassination → Grew obsessed with the idea of immortality → Sent officials to find the elixir of immortality

Qin Shi Huang famously died after swallowing mercury, believing it’d turn him immortal. 

Shi Huang’s chief advisor Li Siu changed the emperor’s will after his death → Shi Huang intended his “commanding eldest son Fusu” as his heir → Li Siu feared Fusu would replaced him as chief advisor and made the “spoiled, coddled, youngest son” Hu Hai as he was “easy to manipulate” (Mark, Qin 8)

“He (Hu Hai) was famous for his bad temper, ordering the death of anyone who brought him bad news, and his lasting legacy is the origin of the saying “Don't kill the messenger” regarding a negative reaction to receiving unwelcome information.” (Mark, Qin 9)

The Qin Dynasty officially fell under the rule of Qin Shi Huang’s grandson Ziying who was unable to stop the rebellion of Liu Bang of Han and Xiang Yu. 

Liu Bang of Han had accepted the surrender of Ziying and treated him well. 

Xiang Yu however had Ziying and his entire family executed. 

Han Dynasty: 206 BCE - 220 AD

Existed around the same time as the ancient Roman Republic and Empire and the Diadochi all the way up to the reign of emperor/empress Elagabalus. → Even traded with the roman empire → See the Roman Silk ban of 14 AD.

This is the dynasty during which Wang Zhaojun lived during the reign of emperor Yuan

The majority of Chinese people are part of the Han ethnic group, which receives its name from the Han dynasty. (Mark, Han 2)

Divided into the earlier Western and later Eastern Han Period (named after the location of the capitals)

Western Han: 206 BCE - 9 AD

Xin Dynasty: 9 AD - 25 AD → Regent Wang Mang declared the Han Dynasty is over and created the VERY brief XinDynasty after which the Han resumed (Mark, Han 1)

Eastern Han: 25 AD - 220 AD

Joshua Mark: “(The Han Dynasty) established the paradigm for all succeeding dynasties up through 1912 CE.” (Han 1)

Founded by Liu Bang, a commoner (born a peasant, worked as a sheriff) → Later called Emperor Gaozu → Liu Bang straight up rolled Nat20 on every single Charisma and Deception Check and faked his way onto the throne.

Liu Bang and Xiang Yu, after defeating the Qin dynasty, turned on each other → Liu Bang finally gained the upper hand by kidnapping Xiang Yu's concubine, Lady Yu, who was the great love of his life, and luring the Chu forces into a hopeless situation at the Battle of Gaixia (202 BCE). Lady Yu committed suicide and Xiang Yu, after burying her, fought his way out but was pursued and killed himself rather than be taken. Liu Bang then established the Han Dynasty, ruling as the Emperor Gaozu (r. 202-195 BCE)” (Mark, Qin 9)

Liu Bang later executed and demoted his other generals upon the request of his wife empress Lu Zhi → known as one of China’s most cruel women (Montgomery). 

Capital was moved from Luoyang to Chang’an (Mark, Han 3)

“With no experience in government, Gaozu had to rely on earlier models and so adopted the decentralized government of the Zhou and the Legalism of the Qin (though the latter was implemented more benevolently). The decentralized state was divided into 13 administrative districts known as commanderies (also as jun) and awarded ten kingdoms to members of his family whom he expected to rule justly” (Mark, Han 3)

According to Poulpart: “Liu Bang created a new governmental structure composed of three actors with overlapping functions, guaranteeing that one would not dominate the other. This system was relying on a chancellor (chengxiang), who was responsible of the cases that would be managed by the emperor, a supreme Commander (taiwei) responsible of any military action or decision, and an imperial counsellor (yushi dafu) at the helm of the bureaucracy and administrative system.” (1)

As a former peasant Liu Bang understood how commoners had felt under the Qin rulers → Lowered Taxes for commoners, redistributed wealth, made some of the rules less strict (Mark, Han 3)

Liu Bang opened up bureaucratic positions for people of all social classes (Mark, Han 3) → His successor emperor Wen of Han would later take this idea further and introduce the imperial state exam → An Exam people of all social classes could take in order to become imperial civil servant 

During the Han period Confucianism was the state religion → According to Confucianism’s ideas the state system of the chinese emperors was superior to every other form of civilisation → Han Emperors used this as explanation for expansionist politics (especially under emperor Wu of Han) → It was their mission given to them by the Mandate of Heaven (Poulpart 1)

Confucianism grew in popularity even amongst commoners but they still practised their own local cults (Poulpart 2) → Confucianism was mostly popular and important within the higher social classes (Poulpart 2)

The Han Dynasty was a period of lots of scientific and artistic advancements, marked by Confucianism and the creation of the silk road under emperor Wu. (Mark, Han 2)

The Hans invented the water wheel, the compass, the seismograph, musical theory and paper (Mark, Han 2)

Creation of the silk road -> Trading routes would reach up to the Roman Empire

The Han also “encouraged literacy and the study of history” (Mark, Han 2) → Sima Qian, the chinese Herodotus, lived during the Han Period

Iron, copper and Salt were regulated by the government → Government held a monopoly on those markets (Poulpart 2) → The Han-Xiongnu wars were partly the reason for that monopoly 

Chinese Mythology underwent development during this time → Think Nezha, the Queen mother of the West, Guanyin, Chang’e, the Jade Emperor etc. (Mark, Han 2) → Many of these figures have existed since the Shang Dynasty

Wars with the Xiongnu (A distinct ethnic group from the mongolian Steppe)

Xiongnu wars lasted for 200 years → Will talk about these in more detail in the Xiongnu section

After Liu Bang’s death his wife Lu Zhi was in charge through several puppet rulers (Mark, Han 3) → She was then executed and Emperor Wen of Han took over. 

Wen’s son Emperor Jing saw that the decentralised government was not working well → centralised the Han empire (Mark, Han 4)

Reigns of Wen and Jing = Golden Age 

After Jing came Emperor Wu → Expansionist policies, made everyone (nobles and commoners) equal under the law code, gave commoners better opportunity to become government officials, adopted Confucianism as the state philosophy (Mark, Han 4)

Expansion into Korea and Vietnam ( → the Trung Sisters Rebellion) and more wars against the Xiongnu (Successful) & establishment of the Silk road  (Mark, Han 4)

After Wu → Emperor Zhao → Emperor Liu He → Emperor Xuan → Emperor Yuan (The one from Wang Zhaojun’s tale)

Emperor Yuan (Or Yuandi) → Big supporter of Confucianism → Because of this (filial piety) he gave powerful positions to his wife’s family members → This and “failure to check the power of his eunuch secretaries” lead to the fall of Western Han and rise of the Xin dynasty

Yuan’s son, Emperor Cheng continued his father’s mistake until his cousin Wang Mang seized power and declared himself Emperor in 9 AD. (Encyclopedia Britannica 1) →Xin Dynasty

Wang Mang was meant to act as a regent to Cheng until he came of age → did not give the power back to Cheng when he was an adult

Joshua Mark: “Wang was a Confucian scholar and idealist who believed that a single, strong ruler with a clear vision and the freedom to do as he pleased would be more effective than one who took counsel and had to discuss policy with others before implementing it.” (5) → Wang Mang was kinda useless as a ruler → “The people grew frustrated with his ineptitude and a mob overran the palace, hacked him to pieces, and used his head as a kickball” (Mark, Han 5)

Emperor Xuan → Reestablished the Han Dynasty → Weak and was soon deposed during the Red-Eyebrow-Rebellion (Mark, Han 6)

Emperor Guangwu → Moves capital to Luoyang → Begin of the eastern Han period → created reforms to avert another Xin situation (Mark, Han 6). 

“the Han ruling house fairly quickly devolved into a series of monarchs who cared more about indulging their pleasures than ruling a country” (Mark, Han 6) → The emperors left country affairs to their Eunuchs.

By 130 AD the imperial court had become corrupt by Eunuchs who held all the power (Mark, Han 2)

At the same time the Han were spending money on expansionist policies into Korea, Vietnam and on wars against Xianbi (A Nomadic group from the mongol steppe like the Xiongnu and Huns)

Famines, Floods and taxes 

The Han Dynasty ended after General Cao Cao defeated the yellow turban rebellion, tried taking over control of the empire. After his defeat via his fellow military commanders, the kingdom was split into three different realms. (Mark, Han 2)

Three Kingdoms: 220-264 

After the Fall of the Han Dynasty

Romance of the three kingdoms takes place around this time

Basically summarised as “Warring States Period 2: Electric Boogaloo”

Jin Dynasty: 265 - 420 

Very shortly lived Dynasty

Descendants of the generals who usurped the imperial throne

It was of the three kingdoms of the previous era, the Wei Kingdom which prevailed and re-unified China (Madsen 5:00)

United China but their reign was marked by wars and violence (Epimetheus 3:30)

Palace intrigue → Civil war 299 - 301 AD

Jin Dynasty fell at the hands of Xiongnu tribes who “settled in the north of china and proved hard to govern” (Madsen: 5:20)

Xiongnu attacked both of China’s capital cities Luoyang and Chang’an

“Many people fled to the south of Nan Jing where the Jin had set up a government in exile” (Madsen 5:30)

Period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties: 386-589 

Northern Wei and the Southern Qi empires

Often considered a dark age of Chinese history (Epimetheus 3:40)

“Dominated by warlords who raided the lands and by barbarian invasions” (Epimetheus 3:48)

Buddhism increased in popularity (had been around in China since the Han Dynasty however) (Madsen: 5:40)

At the end the Wei and Qi kingdom had around 9000 buddhist temples combined (Madsen: 5:48) → Many rulers openly supported Buddhism

Sui Dynasty: 581 - 618 

Had only 2 reigning emperors

Was able to unify China again

Instead of following the rules of Confucius, the Sui emperors tried to act upon Buddhist principles. (Madsen 6:30)

Their “structural changes which paved the way for a more long-lasting successor, the Tang Dynasty” (Cartwright, Sui 1)

Reinstalled the rule of ethnic han chinese (Epimetheus 3:53)

Integrated the barbarians that had invaded China during the previous period (Epimetheus (4:10)

After 1 million men were taken to Korea for military service → Rebellions arose in China during this time → Rebellion lead by Sui Emperor’s cousin Li Yuan overthrew the Sui → Renamed himself emperor Gaozu (Like Liu Bang of Han)

Tang Dynasty: 618 - 906

The second golden Age

Most C-Dramas i watch tend to take place around this period

Arts flourished around this time → Especially Poetry

Tea became more popular → Tea ceremonies (Madsen 8:10)

The story of Yan Gufei (another one of the 4 beauties of China) is set during this time

Internal stability

Scientific advancement

China’s population grew to 80million (Epimetheus 4:20)

The imperial exam of the han was picked up again and modified → Meritocracy (Madsen 7:30)

Surprisingly tolerant of foreigners for an ancient civilisation → Chang’an was cosmopolitan (Madsen 7:40)

All three religions of China (Daoism, Confucianism and Buddhism) thrived during the Tang

Towards the end they began persecuting Buddhists and were deposed after several rebellions (Epimetheus 4:50)

Five Dynasty Period: 907-960: 

China broke again

There is once again war between everyone

Song Dynasty: 960 - 1279 

Divided into Northern Song(960-1127) and Southern Song (1127-1279) (Tsin 1)

Scientific advancements and military development

Started out with a strong economy but was militarily a lot weaker than previous dynasties (Madsen 8:40)

Mass printing and gunpowder was invented during this period (Epimetheus 5:05)

First Paper currency

Southern Song started after Jurchens attacked the capital city and took the Emperor and several officials hostage → The north of china was lost to the Jurchens → New emperor crowned in the south where the Song remained until 1279 (Madsen 8:50)

Tea houses and night markets became popular around this time

Storytellers within these tea houses (Madsen 9:10)

Art in the form of poetry and landscape paintings flourished during southern Song (Madsen 9:20)

North of China during this time was ruled by the Jurchens who after a while took over the chinese imperial system, language, writing system and way of life (Madsen 10:00)

Yuan Dynasty: 1279 - 1368 

Mongol Invasion → Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan 

Moved the Capital city to Dadu (Today Beijing)

Taken from class notes: Around this time the novel became popular → The Mongol emperors did not care for poetry → They preferred theatre → Journey to the West style stage play  → Was written down as a novel → entered the “mainstream”

The Yuan controlled the entire silkroad from China to Europe (Epimetheus 5:30)

Diversity in culture (Epimetheus 5:40)

But Marco polo did note that there was “ethnic tension” in China → Different ethnic groups were placed in different taxation groups (Madsen 13:30) 

“A chinese could land with a hefty fine if he fought a mongol, but a mongol could get away scot free if he killed a chinese” (Madsen: 13:40)

The Mongols kept chinese advisors however and adopted the idea of the chinese emperor being “the son of heaven” (Madsen 14:00)

More Europeans visited China around this time (Like Marco Polo)

Just like the Mongol empire as a whole, this period was very short lived

Ming Dynasty: 1368 - 1644

Founded by a commoner (Taizu) after a successful rebellion against the Mongols

Taizu was a harsh ruler → Went after literati (kinda like emperor Qin but with a bit less executions)

The Imperial exam remained under his rule however → one had to study the 4 great Books → Confucius Analects, Mencius, Doctrine of the Mean and the Great Learning (Madsen 15:30)

Another golden age

Construction of the famous forbidden city in 1406-1420

Ming Vases were a popular exported good

Literature and Art flourished

The great Wall of China was expanded to keep the Mongols out

Problems with Pirates 

Chinese age of exploration → Explorers went as far as east africa and returned with Giraffe’s to the emperor’s court (Madsen 16:00)

Foreign merchants were limited to outposts but could not really go deeper inside China (Madsen 16:40)

Some emperors had around 10’000 concubines around this dynasty (allegedly)

Famine lead the end of the Ming Dynasty

Qing Dynasty: 1644 - 1912

The Manchu ethnic group ruled China after crossing the great wall (Madsen 17:00)

All men in china were ordered to get the Manchu Hairstyle to show their loyalty to the new Dynasty (Madsen 17:10)

Period of stability followed

Most on the information i could find on the harem system came from this period

Not nearly as glamorous as depicted in C-Dramas (shocker)

“Started as a golden age, ended in disaster” (Epimetheus 5:50) → Opium wars

Fell after the Chinese revolution and the establishment of the Republic of China

The life story of the last Emperor of China is honestly a hot mess. 

After the fall of the Qing Dynasty some Consorts and Concubines had to become prostitutes to survive 

Sources: 

Cartwright, Mark: Warring States Period, World History Encyclopedia, 2017 https://www.worldhistory.org/Warring_States_Period/ 

Cartwright, Mark: Sui Dynasty, World History Encyclopedia, 2017. https://www.worldhistory.org/Sui_Dynasty/

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Yuandi". Encyclopedia Britannica, 16 Apr. 2024, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Yuandi, Accessed 22 March 2025.

Epimetheus: All China’s Dynasties explained in 7 minutes, Youtube, 2018 https://youtu.be/fFNzX3tYTXU?si=eZd4uWgxxgJTlufI 

TSIN, Micheal: China - Timeline of Historical Periods, Asia for Educators, Columbia University, 1995 https://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/china_timeline.htm 

MADSEN, Jared: All of China’s Dynasties in ONE Video - Chinese history 101, youtube, 5th August 2022https://youtu.be/Fz_uQNQBK0g?si=Dm4_3DoomfgN7jZo 

Mark, Joshua: Han Dynasty, World History Encyclopedia, 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/Han_Dynasty/

Mark, Joshua: Qin Dynasty, World History Encyclopedia, 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/Qin_Dynasty/

MONTGOMERY, Lazlo: The Han Dynasty (Part 1), in: the chinese history podcast, Ep. 18 https://open.spotify.com/episode/1umFA07mSPCuPyCCcAKiK4?si=pe4iHig8QFOO6_-kv9XTzg 

Poupart, Jean-Baptiste: Han Dynasty, Academia https://academia.edu/resource/work/40640987 

Zhao, Xiran Jay: China’s forgotten Warrior Queen – Fu Hao, Youtube, 2022.

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Thinking About the Meaning of White

While reading a novel, I came across the word 科白.

If you read it as written, is it kahaku? I had never heard that word before. Wondering what it meant, I looked it up and learned that it is read serifu. Apparently, kahaku is also a possible reading.

Search for Meaning Through the Origin of the Character

When you think about the character 白, words such as 告白 (kokuhaku, “confession”), 自白 (jihaku, “confession”), and 白状 (hakujō, “admission”) also use it in situations where someone says something aloud.

Does 白 have the meaning of “to say”?

If you want to understand the meaning of a kanji, search for its origin! So I looked into the origin of 白.

This shape, like a droplet with a horizontal line drawn through it, is said to have been the original form of the character 白.

There are several theories about what it represented: the shape of a thumb, showing the eldest of siblings or the head of a clan; an acorn; or the shape of a skull.

One theory says that it originally represented the shape of a thumb. The thumb represented the father, and therefore the head of the family or clan. But because 白 (haku) became widely associated with the image of “the color white,” a new character, 伯, was created to separate the meanings.

But then why did a character meaning “head of the clan” come to mean “the color white”?

Here, the “skull” and “acorn” theories come in.

In ancient China, the skulls of great chiefs were believed to possess spiritual power and were treated as sacred. Skull = white = great chief. That connection makes sense.

Also, people in ancient times ate acorns as a staple food. Inside the brown shell, the nut is white. So there seems to be a theory that the image of “acorn → the inside is white → the color white” became attached to the character.

Writing was created to leave things behind for people far away or for later generations, but just looking at the old character above, I honestly cannot tell what it is supposed to represent. In the end, meanings are passed down by hearsay: “This means this.” Maybe that is why there are so many theories about the origin.

Come to think of it, 柏 (kashiwa) refers to an oak tree, doesn’t it? Maybe the character was made by attaching 白, “acorn,” to 木, “tree.” So maybe it really does represent an acorn after all?

Still, even after researching this far, all I had found was 白 as an image of color.

So where did the meaning of “to say” get added to 白?

Did 白 Come to Mean “To Speak” Because of 自?

Then I came across a new piece of information.

There is a theory that 白 is a variant form of 自.

A variant character is something like 高 and 髙, or 斉 and 斎: the same character and meaning, but with slightly different forms.

So then, how did 自 come into being?

I found an illustration like this.

Apparently, 自 originally represented a human nose.

Later, however, 自 came to be widely used with the meaning of “oneself.” As a result, people stopped using 自 to mean “nose,” and eventually the character 鼻 was created for that purpose.

What caught my attention was the meaning of “nose.”

The nose is where we breathe.

Breath is what carries our voice.

There is a theory that the meaning of “to speak” or “to express words” became attached to 自 because it was associated with breath. Later, in order to separate the meanings of “nose,” “self,” and “to speak,” the meaning related to speech was attached to 白, a variant form of 自.

Is There Any Connection Between 申 and Speech?

Then another thought occurred to me.

The character 申, meaning “to state” or “to report,” looks a little like 日—which itself resembles 白.

Could it be that 白 acquired the meaning “to speak” because it was somehow related to 申?

So I looked into that as well.

It turns out that 申 originally represented a flash of lightning.

Because lightning stretches across the sky in multiple directions, the character came to carry the meaning “to extend.”

In other words, it seems that 白 and 申 are unrelated in terms of their origins.

Still, that raised another question.

Why did a character representing lightning come to mean “to state” or “to speak”?

One explanation says that speech is something that extends outward from within oneself.

The words inside a person are extended outward into the world.

And from there, I wandered into pure speculation.

Lightning, Gods, and Words

This is entirely my own theory.

When I think of God in the Old Testament, I tend to associate Him with lightning.

Partly because passages like this left a strong impression on me:

On the morning of the third day there was thunder and lightning, with a thick cloud over the mountain, and a very loud trumpet blast. Everyone in the camp trembled. Mount Sinai was covered with smoke, because the Lord descended on it in fire.  As the sound of the trumpet grew louder and louder, Moses spoke and the voice of God answered him.  (Exodus 19:16–19, NIV)

Even before this passage, thunder and lightning appear repeatedly throughout the Bible.

And this is not unique to Christianity.

In Greek mythology, Zeus rules the world with thunderbolts.

There are gods of thunder and lightning in Japanese, Chinese, Roman, Egyptian, and many other traditions as well.

Perhaps people in ancient times imagined that gods lived within storm clouds.

In that sense:

Lightning = God.

The Japanese character 神 (“god”) is also written with the radical 示 and the character 申, which originally represented lightning.

Maybe people naturally associated lightning with the presence of the divine.

Then there is another passage that came to mind:

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was with God in the beginning. Through him all things were made; without him nothing was made that has been made.  In him was life, and that life was the light of all mankind. The light shines in the darkness, and the darkness has not overcome it. (John 1:1–5, NIV)

In this passage, God says, “Let there be light,” and light comes into existence. Everything in creation comes into being through God’s word.

In other words, ancient people seem to have understood words and God as being deeply connected.

Words do not merely describe reality.

Words create reality.

True Names

As an aside, this reminded me of the concept of the True Name in Ursula K. Le Guin’s Earthsea.

The true name. The thing that grants power over all things in Earthsea. Every grain of sand, every drop of water, every living thing possesses a true name, and anyone who knows that name can control it.

When I first encountered that idea, I remember wondering whether it had been influenced by traditions like this.

If God’s words can bring things into existence, then perhaps a true name is more than just a label.

Perhaps speaking the true name of something allows it to be summoned, moved, or changed.

White, Speech, and the Sacred

Ancient people saw gods and words as deeply connected.

They also associated gods with lightning.

Perhaps that is why I found myself imagining a chain of associations:

Lightning = God = Word.

Maybe that is why a character originally associated with lightning eventually acquired the meaning “to state” or “to speak.”

Then there is 白.

White is widely regarded as a symbol of holiness.

Across cultures, it is associated with peace, purity, and sacred things.

According to one theory, 白 inherited a meaning related to speech from 自.

And according to another tradition, words themselves were considered divine.

A character associated with holiness.

A character associated with speech.

A world in which words and gods were inseparable.

It may all be coincidence.

But I cannot help feeling that there is something beautiful about those connections.

Returning to 科白

So, after all of that, let us return to the word 科白.

It seems that, through various twists and turns, the character 白 eventually acquired the meaning “to speak.”

As for how 科白 itself came to mean “dialogue,” the explanation appears to lie in Japan’s traditional performing arts, such as Noh and Kyōgen.

In old scripts, stage directions and instructions for movement were written down, but the actual words spoken by the actors were written in the spaces between the lines or in the margins—the blank, white spaces on the page.

Because of this:

科 referred to actions or movements.

白 referred to words or spoken lines.

Together, 科白 came to mean the actor’s actions and dialogue.

Incidentally, the word serifu itself does not appear to have originated in China.

One theory suggests that it comes from the world of Kabuki. Actors would exchange lines as if competing with one another, and the word evolved from serigoto (“competing words”). The characters 科白 were then assigned later.

In other words, the Japanese word itself seems to have come first, and the kanji were applied afterward.

Still, after all this research, one question remained.

Why is white treated as a symbol of holiness, purity, and peace almost everywhere in the world?

To explore that question, I turned my attention to national flags and the meanings attached to the color white in different countries.

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White in National Flags

Japan

In Japan, red and white have long been regarded as auspicious colors used in celebrations and ceremonies.

White is also commonly associated with purity and the sacred.

France

In France, white is said to represent equality.

It is also associated with the white fleur-de-lis, a symbol of the Bourbon monarchy.

Indonesia

In Indonesia, white represents truth and a pure heart.

Canada

In Canada, white is said to represent snow, one of the country’s most recognizable features.

Other examples were equally interesting.

In Finland, white is associated with snow.

In Israel, it represents purity of heart.

In Nigeria, it symbolizes peace.

In Peru, it stands for peace and honor.

Even from this brief survey, one thing stood out to me.

White is used positively almost everywhere.

Perhaps that is only natural—national flags are meant to represent a country in a favorable light.

Still, I found it fascinating that so many different cultures had independently associated white with ideas such as peace, purity, and holiness.

Why Does White Have Such Positive Associations?

White is said to be the brightest color because it reflects light.

Black, by contrast, absorbs it.

In the ancient world, nights were far darker than they are today.

Darkness was dangerous.

Predators could approach unseen.

Visibility was poor.

Simply moving around became more difficult.

In some cases, it could be a matter of life and death.

Perhaps that is why red, the color of fire, came to be associated with protection and the warding off of evil.

Of course, there are other explanations.

One theory traces the protective symbolism of red to the blood painted on doorways during the Exodus:

Then they are to take some of the blood and put it on the sides and tops of the doorframes of the houses where they eat the lambs. (Exodus 12:7, NIV)

Personally, I find that interpretation fascinating as well.

Many national flags that use red associate it with blood, sacrifice, or struggle.

But no matter how brightly a fire burns, it cannot compete with sunlight.

When the sun rises, hidden things become visible.

The world becomes easier to navigate.

The danger of nocturnal predators diminishes.

Perhaps that is why human beings first developed a negative image of darkness.

And perhaps the brightest thing of all—light itself—came to be associated with safety, goodness, and purity.

If so, it would make sense that white, the color closest to light, inherited those positive meanings.

At least, that is my theory.

Does White Have Any Negative Meanings?

At this point, I started wondering about something else.

If white is associated with holiness, purity, and peace in so many places around the world, are there any cultures that view it negatively?

So I looked into that as well.

In Japanese, there is the expression shirajirashii (白々しい), which is not usually used in a positive way.

It can be used to describe someone who is being obviously insincere.

But the meaning of 白 here is actually closer to “plainly visible.”

The feeling is less “white is bad” and more:

“You think you’re hiding it? Everyone can see right through you.”

In other words, the negative meaning does not come from white itself.

The same thing happened with other examples I found.

There are certainly words containing 白 that appear in negative contexts, but the negativity rarely comes from the character itself.

Even when used critically, 白 often retains its sense of clarity, openness, or revelation.

No matter where I looked, I struggled to find a genuinely negative symbolic meaning attached to white itself.

And then I came across a phrase that caught my attention.

White Elephant

While researching words and expressions containing “white” in other languages, I encountered the phrase White Elephant.

Its meaning was:

“A burdensome possession.”

“Something troublesome.”

“Something more trouble than it is worth.”

I was surprised immediately.

First, because it literally means “white elephant.”

And second, because it carried such a negative meaning.

How could something associated with the color white—a color that seemed to symbolize holiness, peace, and purity almost everywhere—come to mean a burden?

I wanted to know more.

What Is a White Elephant?

The first thing I learned was that white elephants are regarded as sacred animals, especially in Southeast Asia.

A white elephant does not necessarily have to be an albino.

Animals with several pale patches and certain recognized characteristics may also be classified as white elephants.

The first thing I did was search for photographs.

I had never actually seen a white elephant before.

“Oh.”

“They are white…”

Well, sort of.

The two elephants in the photographs on the left had been painted white for ceremonial purposes.

The actual white elephant was the one on the right.

To be honest, it was not the pure white animal I had imagined from stories and legends.

Its color was certainly lighter than that of an ordinary elephant, but it was not truly white.

Then I came across another interesting detail.

Apparently, “white elephant” may itself be the result of a translation problem.

According to one explanation, the original term is closer to “taro-colored elephant.”

Taro.

Looking at photographs of white elephants, I had to admit that the comparison was not entirely unreasonable.

The color does resemble the pale flesh of a taro root.

That reminded me of another famous example.

The white rhinoceros is not called “white” because of its color. One explanation says that the name originated when the Dutch word wijd (“wide”), referring to the animal’s broad mouth, was misheard as white.

Something similar may have happened in Thailand.

Perhaps the sacred elephant gradually became associated with the sacred color white through translation and interpretation.

Or perhaps people simply began to connect a rare pale elephant with ideas of holiness and purity.

Either way, the image of the White Elephant was born.

An albino elephant calf and an elephant that turned white after a mud bath.

Sacred Animals and Kings

White was considered a sacred color in Thailand as well.

Elephants themselves were already associated with the divine. Ganesha, the elephant-headed god, is probably the most famous example.

In a culture where elephants were revered, a pale elephant would naturally be seen as extraordinary.

Even being slightly lighter in color would have been enough to make such an animal exceptionally rare.

And rarity often becomes a sign of the sacred.

White elephants belonged to the king.

If one was discovered, it was expected to be presented to the royal court.

Owning three white elephants was considered an impressive achievement.

King Bhumibol Adulyadej was said to have owned seven, which was regarded as an extraordinary accomplishment.

The relationship between kings and elephants in Thailand was far closer than I had imagined.

Why Did White Elephant Come to Mean “A Burden”?

And that brings us back to the original question.

If white elephants were sacred, royal, and precious, why did the phrase White Elephant come to mean something troublesome?

The answer lies in an old story.

According to an old story, a king in Thailand would sometimes give a white elephant to a courtier he disliked.

The recipient could hardly refuse.

A white elephant was rare.

It was sacred.

And it had come directly from the king.

There was no way such a gift could simply be thrown away.

The elephant could not be released into the forest.

It could not be sold.

It certainly could not be killed.

And yet it was still an elephant.

It ate enormous amounts of food.

It required constant care.

It destroyed property simply by existing.

The unfortunate recipient was forced to keep it, no matter how difficult or expensive that became.

That, supposedly, is how white elephant came to mean a troublesome possession or a burdensome gift.

I love this story.

The first thing that fascinates me is the king.

He gives a sacred animal—something precious to the royal family, something that must be presented to the king if discovered—to someone he dislikes.

Some versions of the story say that the king would choose a white elephant of particularly poor quality.

Even so, it had still been recognized as a white elephant.

It was still rare enough to be treasured.

Still sacred enough to belong to the king.

Owning three white elephants was considered an achievement worthy of admiration.

And yet the king gives one away.

To someone he dislikes.

He gives away one of his own treasures.

That is what fascinates me.

In order to ruin another person, the king presents them with something that is precious to him.

He dislikes them, yet he gives them something valuable.

He gives away one of his finest possessions, yet hidden within that gift is a desire to destroy the recipient.

The contradiction is extraordinary.

And yet it feels profoundly human.

I cannot help wondering what kind of story existed between those two people.

What Did the Courtier Feel?

And what about the courtier?

What did he feel when he looked at the elephant standing before him?

At what moment did he realize the king’s malice?

The white elephant was the greatest gift the king could have given him.

And yet it was also the thing that would gradually destroy him.

How did he watch that happen?

Did he come to hate the king?

Or did he continue believing in the king’s goodwill and blame only himself for being unable to care properly for such a magnificent gift?

Even if he hated the king, the elephant itself did not change.

It was still the white elephant the king had given him.

Still sacred.

Still precious.

Still the king’s gift.

I cannot help feeling that there must have been emotions there that cannot be easily explained.

And What About the King?

And what about the king?

As he watched one of his own treasures bring ruin to another person, what did he feel?

Did he think,

“Serves him right.”

Or was it something else?

I often find myself wondering.

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An Aside

English contains several other expressions involving elephants.

Elephant in the Room

Literally, this means “an elephant in the room.”

It refers to something obvious that everyone can see but chooses to ignore.

A huge elephant is standing right there in the room, yet nobody mentions it.

Well, once you acknowledge it, you have to deal with it.

I can understand the temptation.

See the Elephant

Literally, “to see the elephant.”

This is an old slang expression meaning to experience all kinds of things in life, usually through hardship.

In the past, seeing an elephant was not something ordinary people could easily do.

You could not simply search for one online.

You could not assume there would be a zoo nearby.

To see an elephant often meant traveling far away or having an unusual experience.

The expression seems to have survived from those days.

Pink Elephant

Literally, “a pink elephant.”

It refers to hallucinations, especially those caused by alcohol or drugs.

It can also refer to embarrassing memories from the past.

Come to think of it, wasn’t there a pink elephant sequence in Disney’s Winnie the Pooh ride?

Or am I remembering that incorrectly?

There are pink elephants in Dumbo, too.

Apparently the expression has existed in English for a very long time.

Elephant Juice

Literally, “elephant juice.”

This one completely baffled me.

Apparently, if you silently mouth the words elephant juice, your lips move in a way that resembles I love you.

So if a novel says someone mouthed “elephant juice,” it can mean they silently said “I love you.”

As someone who does not speak English natively, I never would have guessed that on my own.

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White Elephant

And so, after all of this, I return once more to the white elephant.

Do you think what Snape gave Harry was a white elephant?

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Adapted, edited, and translated by Luca from the author’s original research notes and blog entries.

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Read on AO3: White Elephant https://archiveofourown.org/works/85192486/chapters/224957146