#research notes

Xia Dynasty: 2100 - 1600 BCE 

Probably very likely or even most definitely mythical -> the archeological record shows no proof of them ever having existed.

Before them china was ruled by so called “legendary sage emperors”

A guy named Yu had been commissioned by them to find a way to manage to floodings of the Yellow river -> managed to do that and founded the xia dynasty (Madsen 0:34)

Shāng Dynasty: 1600-1050 BCE

Capital near Zhengzhou (Tsin 1)

Bronze artifacts (Madsen 0:58)

Warlike in nature → Similar to the Mycenaeans in ancient Greece. 

Technology regarding Bronze smithing improved throughout this dynasty

Probably invented writing/earliest form of chinese writing attributed to them (Madsen 1:10) 

Jiǎ gǔ wén -> Oracle Bone inscription (Madsen 1:20) -> Writings on bones and turtle shells for divination

Women had a lot more rights during this time and were politically and militarily engaged → Example Fu Hao (Zhao 2022, 3:20)

Ended in a period of decadence and replaced by the Zhou (Madsen1:35)

Cool fact: Shang King Wu Di (Husband of Fu Hao) would travel around his kingdom disguised as a commoner to understand the troubles of the common people better (Zhao 2022, 5:00)

Zhōu Dynasty: 1050 - 256 BCE

Divided into 2 periods: Western Zhōu (1050-771 BCE) and Eastern Zhōu (771-256)

Eastern Zhōu happens at the same time as the Spring and Autumn Period (770-475 BCE) and the Warring states Period (475-221 BCE) 

Capital Western Zhou: Hao (near Xi’an)

Capital Eastern Zhōu: Luoyang (in the province of Henan)

Confusius creates the idea of confucianism around this time (the  -> Huge influence on chinese culture (Tsin 1)

Main rule of Confucianism: “do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you” but “felial Piety”/devotion to the family is equally if not even more important

Idea of Mandate of Heaven is created (Madsen) → Joshua Mark however claims the Mandate of heaven was created under the Shang Dynasty, the Zhou just developed it further (Mark, Han 3)

Mandate of Heaven: A king could only rule if he acted just -> He had the heaven’s favour and was granted the right to rule by the heavens. But the heavens could take that right away from him if he acted unjustly.(Madsen 1:51) → The ruler HAD to look after his people in order to keep the mandate of heaven. 

Kinda like the “Gracie dei” in western medieval kingdoms except your god given right as a king came with conditions 

There will be signs by the heavens before hand -> natural disasters (Madsen 1:55)

Book of Songs was written around this time (taken from personal university class notes)

Functioned under a complex feudalistic system → Decentralised government (Epimetheus 1:50)

The Zhōu decline was long and painful starting with the Spring and Autumn period

In the end China broke into many different kingdoms and states (Zhōu being but one of them)

Warring States Period: 475-221 BCE

The Zhou were, according to Cartwright: “No longer dominant in military terms, the Zhou were forced to rely on armies of other allied states, who on occasion took the opportunity to forward their own territorial claims. For this reason, the Zhou king was compelled to sometimes make the military leader of another state the military leader of the Zhou alliance.” (2) → The greatest of these military leaders received the title of Hegemon. 

By the 4th century BCE 100 smaller states had been “consolidated by conquest” (Cartwright 2) into 7 major states: Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Wei, Yan and Zhao. 

“In each state, the ruler declared himself king and independent of the Zhou empire.” (Cartwright 2)

Basically everyone was fighting everyone at all times. 

It also marked the beginning of China’s use of a cavalry in the military as well as the chineses’ entry into the iron age through the use of iron swords and crossbows (Cartwright 3)

There were still cultural developments despite the constant wars (Cartwright 5)

Metalworking developed (Iron)

 agricultural revolution (Iron tools)

cities grew in size

large defensive walls

 towers were erected

Multi-storey citygates to impress visitors

Rulers’ Palaces became more extravagant 

Marketplaces → Trade

Industrialised pottery and weapon production 

Town planning (Grid pattern similar to Roman and Greek Colonies in the West)

Introduction of bronze coins with a hole in the middle

Philosophy → Writings and contemplation on Confucius, Daoism, Legalism, War Tactics (Sun Tzu)

Qin Dynasty: 221-206 BCE

Before the rise of the Qin Dynasty, the Qin had remained “one of the few states which remained loyal to the Zhou” (Cartwright 4)

Several Qin rulers had received the title of Hegemon from the Zhou kings during this time (Cartwright 4).

Qin conquered all the other nations at the end of the warring states period. 

Reunited China into one nation

Rulers of previous dynasties were called kings (Wáng 王)

the Qin ruler (Qin Shi Huang) invented a new title for himself -> Emperor (Huáng Dì 皇帝）(Madsen)

Qin Shi Huang was known for his brutality and draconian rule

Qin Shi Huang “understood that the Zhous's policy of a decentralized government had contributed to its fall and so established a centralized state which decreased the power of the aristocracy, eliminated the borders between different states, and operated according to the precepts of the philosophy of Legalism”. (Mark, Qin 2)

He forced a unified writing systems onto those he conquered and had hundreds of historians executed and historical records burned ->he wanted to unite the people of China under one shared identity and for the “history of China to start with him”.

But his bookburnings had other reasons → Scholars would write tracts criticising Qin Shi Huang’s rule and comparing it with more benevolent rulers of the past Zhou dynasty and saying Qin Shi Huang was ignoring the mandate of heaven by not caring for his subjects correctly (turning them into slaves) (Mark, Qin 5)

People who tried to hide the history books and writings of past dynasties were also executed (Mark, Qin 5)

But not only history books were burned also “any works expressing the concepts from the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought should also be destroyed including the standard educational texts known as the Four Books and Five Classics from the Zhou Dynasty. Anyone speaking on such topics should be killed and any officers or officials who heard of such conversations and did not report them should be likewise.” (Mark, Qin 5) 

Only medicine and science books were spared. (Mark, Qin 5)

→ Had scholars executed by burying them alive in a mass grave (Madsen 3:40)

“Shi Huangdi suppressed all freedom of speech, had the legal codes rewritten to adhere more closely with his own personal vision.” (Mark, Qin 6)

“A one hit wonder of a dynasty” (Montgomery) 

Joshua Mark: “213 BCE, his need to control every aspect of his subjects' lives, and fear of rebellion, had turned China into a police state in which freedoms were severely limited and the peasant class was reduced to a level of conscript slavery” (2)

Under Qin Shi Huang China saw the first version of the Great Wall (protection against the invading Xiongnu), the Grand Canal, introduction of state coinage, highway constructions, and the terracotta army in his tomb. (Mark, Qin 2) 

Joshua Mark: “His early reign seems, at first glance, a model for any monarch in true leadership and care for his people but Shi Huangdi only interpreted the Mandate of Heaven in terms of his own power and self-importance; his subjects were a means to an end, not an end in themselves. Those who worked on the wall, the canal, and other public projects, if they even were initially paid, quickly became conscripts taken from their homes to labor for scraps of food and communal lodgings.” (Qin 4)

“He encouraged science and discouraged letters” (Mark, Qin 4)

Joshua Mark: “The people's lives under the Qin became harsh, narrow, and more uncertain (..) because government officials could take anyone they wanted to work on the emperor's projects, no matter their social class or occupation. Only the emperor's men were allowed weapons so there was no armed resistance possible and, even if arms had been available, Shi Huangdi's network of spies, secret police, and informants would have revealed a plot before it had a chance to be put into action”. (Qin 5)

Shi Huangdi became increasingly more paranoid as time went on leading to more and more restrictive laws → Scared of usurpation and assassination → Grew obsessed with the idea of immortality → Sent officials to find the elixir of immortality

Qin Shi Huang famously died after swallowing mercury, believing it’d turn him immortal. 

Shi Huang’s chief advisor Li Siu changed the emperor’s will after his death → Shi Huang intended his “commanding eldest son Fusu” as his heir → Li Siu feared Fusu would replaced him as chief advisor and made the “spoiled, coddled, youngest son” Hu Hai as he was “easy to manipulate” (Mark, Qin 8)

“He (Hu Hai) was famous for his bad temper, ordering the death of anyone who brought him bad news, and his lasting legacy is the origin of the saying “Don't kill the messenger” regarding a negative reaction to receiving unwelcome information.” (Mark, Qin 9)

The Qin Dynasty officially fell under the rule of Qin Shi Huang’s grandson Ziying who was unable to stop the rebellion of Liu Bang of Han and Xiang Yu. 

Liu Bang of Han had accepted the surrender of Ziying and treated him well. 

Xiang Yu however had Ziying and his entire family executed. 

Han Dynasty: 206 BCE - 220 AD

Existed around the same time as the ancient Roman Republic and Empire and the Diadochi all the way up to the reign of emperor/empress Elagabalus. → Even traded with the roman empire → See the Roman Silk ban of 14 AD.

This is the dynasty during which Wang Zhaojun lived during the reign of emperor Yuan

The majority of Chinese people are part of the Han ethnic group, which receives its name from the Han dynasty. (Mark, Han 2)

Divided into the earlier Western and later Eastern Han Period (named after the location of the capitals)

Western Han: 206 BCE - 9 AD

Xin Dynasty: 9 AD - 25 AD → Regent Wang Mang declared the Han Dynasty is over and created the VERY brief XinDynasty after which the Han resumed (Mark, Han 1)

Eastern Han: 25 AD - 220 AD

Joshua Mark: “(The Han Dynasty) established the paradigm for all succeeding dynasties up through 1912 CE.” (Han 1)

Founded by Liu Bang, a commoner (born a peasant, worked as a sheriff) → Later called Emperor Gaozu → Liu Bang straight up rolled Nat20 on every single Charisma and Deception Check and faked his way onto the throne.

Liu Bang and Xiang Yu, after defeating the Qin dynasty, turned on each other → Liu Bang finally gained the upper hand by kidnapping Xiang Yu's concubine, Lady Yu, who was the great love of his life, and luring the Chu forces into a hopeless situation at the Battle of Gaixia (202 BCE). Lady Yu committed suicide and Xiang Yu, after burying her, fought his way out but was pursued and killed himself rather than be taken. Liu Bang then established the Han Dynasty, ruling as the Emperor Gaozu (r. 202-195 BCE)” (Mark, Qin 9)

Liu Bang later executed and demoted his other generals upon the request of his wife empress Lu Zhi → known as one of China’s most cruel women (Montgomery). 

Capital was moved from Luoyang to Chang’an (Mark, Han 3)

“With no experience in government, Gaozu had to rely on earlier models and so adopted the decentralized government of the Zhou and the Legalism of the Qin (though the latter was implemented more benevolently). The decentralized state was divided into 13 administrative districts known as commanderies (also as jun) and awarded ten kingdoms to members of his family whom he expected to rule justly” (Mark, Han 3)

According to Poulpart: “Liu Bang created a new governmental structure composed of three actors with overlapping functions, guaranteeing that one would not dominate the other. This system was relying on a chancellor (chengxiang), who was responsible of the cases that would be managed by the emperor, a supreme Commander (taiwei) responsible of any military action or decision, and an imperial counsellor (yushi dafu) at the helm of the bureaucracy and administrative system.” (1)

As a former peasant Liu Bang understood how commoners had felt under the Qin rulers → Lowered Taxes for commoners, redistributed wealth, made some of the rules less strict (Mark, Han 3)

Liu Bang opened up bureaucratic positions for people of all social classes (Mark, Han 3) → His successor emperor Wen of Han would later take this idea further and introduce the imperial state exam → An Exam people of all social classes could take in order to become imperial civil servant 

During the Han period Confucianism was the state religion → According to Confucianism’s ideas the state system of the chinese emperors was superior to every other form of civilisation → Han Emperors used this as explanation for expansionist politics (especially under emperor Wu of Han) → It was their mission given to them by the Mandate of Heaven (Poulpart 1)

Confucianism grew in popularity even amongst commoners but they still practised their own local cults (Poulpart 2) → Confucianism was mostly popular and important within the higher social classes (Poulpart 2)

The Han Dynasty was a period of lots of scientific and artistic advancements, marked by Confucianism and the creation of the silk road under emperor Wu. (Mark, Han 2)

The Hans invented the water wheel, the compass, the seismograph, musical theory and paper (Mark, Han 2)

Creation of the silk road -> Trading routes would reach up to the Roman Empire

The Han also “encouraged literacy and the study of history” (Mark, Han 2) → Sima Qian, the chinese Herodotus, lived during the Han Period

Iron, copper and Salt were regulated by the government → Government held a monopoly on those markets (Poulpart 2) → The Han-Xiongnu wars were partly the reason for that monopoly 

Chinese Mythology underwent development during this time → Think Nezha, the Queen mother of the West, Guanyin, Chang’e, the Jade Emperor etc. (Mark, Han 2) → Many of these figures have existed since the Shang Dynasty

Wars with the Xiongnu (A distinct ethnic group from the mongolian Steppe)

Xiongnu wars lasted for 200 years → Will talk about these in more detail in the Xiongnu section

After Liu Bang’s death his wife Lu Zhi was in charge through several puppet rulers (Mark, Han 3) → She was then executed and Emperor Wen of Han took over. 

Wen’s son Emperor Jing saw that the decentralised government was not working well → centralised the Han empire (Mark, Han 4)

Reigns of Wen and Jing = Golden Age 

After Jing came Emperor Wu → Expansionist policies, made everyone (nobles and commoners) equal under the law code, gave commoners better opportunity to become government officials, adopted Confucianism as the state philosophy (Mark, Han 4)

Expansion into Korea and Vietnam ( → the Trung Sisters Rebellion) and more wars against the Xiongnu (Successful) & establishment of the Silk road  (Mark, Han 4)

After Wu → Emperor Zhao → Emperor Liu He → Emperor Xuan → Emperor Yuan (The one from Wang Zhaojun’s tale)

Emperor Yuan (Or Yuandi) → Big supporter of Confucianism → Because of this (filial piety) he gave powerful positions to his wife’s family members → This and “failure to check the power of his eunuch secretaries” lead to the fall of Western Han and rise of the Xin dynasty

Yuan’s son, Emperor Cheng continued his father’s mistake until his cousin Wang Mang seized power and declared himself Emperor in 9 AD. (Encyclopedia Britannica 1) →Xin Dynasty

Wang Mang was meant to act as a regent to Cheng until he came of age → did not give the power back to Cheng when he was an adult

Joshua Mark: “Wang was a Confucian scholar and idealist who believed that a single, strong ruler with a clear vision and the freedom to do as he pleased would be more effective than one who took counsel and had to discuss policy with others before implementing it.” (5) → Wang Mang was kinda useless as a ruler → “The people grew frustrated with his ineptitude and a mob overran the palace, hacked him to pieces, and used his head as a kickball” (Mark, Han 5)

Emperor Xuan → Reestablished the Han Dynasty → Weak and was soon deposed during the Red-Eyebrow-Rebellion (Mark, Han 6)

Emperor Guangwu → Moves capital to Luoyang → Begin of the eastern Han period → created reforms to avert another Xin situation (Mark, Han 6). 

“the Han ruling house fairly quickly devolved into a series of monarchs who cared more about indulging their pleasures than ruling a country” (Mark, Han 6) → The emperors left country affairs to their Eunuchs.

By 130 AD the imperial court had become corrupt by Eunuchs who held all the power (Mark, Han 2)

At the same time the Han were spending money on expansionist policies into Korea, Vietnam and on wars against Xianbi (A Nomadic group from the mongol steppe like the Xiongnu and Huns)

Famines, Floods and taxes 

The Han Dynasty ended after General Cao Cao defeated the yellow turban rebellion, tried taking over control of the empire. After his defeat via his fellow military commanders, the kingdom was split into three different realms. (Mark, Han 2)

Three Kingdoms: 220-264 

After the Fall of the Han Dynasty

Romance of the three kingdoms takes place around this time

Basically summarised as “Warring States Period 2: Electric Boogaloo”

Jin Dynasty: 265 - 420 

Very shortly lived Dynasty

Descendants of the generals who usurped the imperial throne

It was of the three kingdoms of the previous era, the Wei Kingdom which prevailed and re-unified China (Madsen 5:00)

United China but their reign was marked by wars and violence (Epimetheus 3:30)

Palace intrigue → Civil war 299 - 301 AD

Jin Dynasty fell at the hands of Xiongnu tribes who “settled in the north of china and proved hard to govern” (Madsen: 5:20)

Xiongnu attacked both of China’s capital cities Luoyang and Chang’an

“Many people fled to the south of Nan Jing where the Jin had set up a government in exile” (Madsen 5:30)

Period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties: 386-589 

Northern Wei and the Southern Qi empires

Often considered a dark age of Chinese history (Epimetheus 3:40)

“Dominated by warlords who raided the lands and by barbarian invasions” (Epimetheus 3:48)

Buddhism increased in popularity (had been around in China since the Han Dynasty however) (Madsen: 5:40)

At the end the Wei and Qi kingdom had around 9000 buddhist temples combined (Madsen: 5:48) → Many rulers openly supported Buddhism

Sui Dynasty: 581 - 618 

Had only 2 reigning emperors

Was able to unify China again

Instead of following the rules of Confucius, the Sui emperors tried to act upon Buddhist principles. (Madsen 6:30)

Their “structural changes which paved the way for a more long-lasting successor, the Tang Dynasty” (Cartwright, Sui 1)

Reinstalled the rule of ethnic han chinese (Epimetheus 3:53)

Integrated the barbarians that had invaded China during the previous period (Epimetheus (4:10)

After 1 million men were taken to Korea for military service → Rebellions arose in China during this time → Rebellion lead by Sui Emperor’s cousin Li Yuan overthrew the Sui → Renamed himself emperor Gaozu (Like Liu Bang of Han)

Tang Dynasty: 618 - 906

The second golden Age

Most C-Dramas i watch tend to take place around this period

Arts flourished around this time → Especially Poetry

Tea became more popular → Tea ceremonies (Madsen 8:10)

The story of Yan Gufei (another one of the 4 beauties of China) is set during this time

Internal stability

Scientific advancement

China’s population grew to 80million (Epimetheus 4:20)

The imperial exam of the han was picked up again and modified → Meritocracy (Madsen 7:30)

Surprisingly tolerant of foreigners for an ancient civilisation → Chang’an was cosmopolitan (Madsen 7:40)

All three religions of China (Daoism, Confucianism and Buddhism) thrived during the Tang

Towards the end they began persecuting Buddhists and were deposed after several rebellions (Epimetheus 4:50)

Five Dynasty Period: 907-960: 

China broke again

There is once again war between everyone

Song Dynasty: 960 - 1279 

Divided into Northern Song(960-1127) and Southern Song (1127-1279) (Tsin 1)

Scientific advancements and military development

Started out with a strong economy but was militarily a lot weaker than previous dynasties (Madsen 8:40)

Mass printing and gunpowder was invented during this period (Epimetheus 5:05)

First Paper currency

Southern Song started after Jurchens attacked the capital city and took the Emperor and several officials hostage → The north of china was lost to the Jurchens → New emperor crowned in the south where the Song remained until 1279 (Madsen 8:50)

Tea houses and night markets became popular around this time

Storytellers within these tea houses (Madsen 9:10)

Art in the form of poetry and landscape paintings flourished during southern Song (Madsen 9:20)

North of China during this time was ruled by the Jurchens who after a while took over the chinese imperial system, language, writing system and way of life (Madsen 10:00)

Yuan Dynasty: 1279 - 1368 

Mongol Invasion → Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan 

Moved the Capital city to Dadu (Today Beijing)

Taken from class notes: Around this time the novel became popular → The Mongol emperors did not care for poetry → They preferred theatre → Journey to the West style stage play  → Was written down as a novel → entered the “mainstream”

The Yuan controlled the entire silkroad from China to Europe (Epimetheus 5:30)

Diversity in culture (Epimetheus 5:40)

But Marco polo did note that there was “ethnic tension” in China → Different ethnic groups were placed in different taxation groups (Madsen 13:30) 

“A chinese could land with a hefty fine if he fought a mongol, but a mongol could get away scot free if he killed a chinese” (Madsen: 13:40)

The Mongols kept chinese advisors however and adopted the idea of the chinese emperor being “the son of heaven” (Madsen 14:00)

More Europeans visited China around this time (Like Marco Polo)

Just like the Mongol empire as a whole, this period was very short lived

Ming Dynasty: 1368 - 1644

Founded by a commoner (Taizu) after a successful rebellion against the Mongols

Taizu was a harsh ruler → Went after literati (kinda like emperor Qin but with a bit less executions)

The Imperial exam remained under his rule however → one had to study the 4 great Books → Confucius Analects, Mencius, Doctrine of the Mean and the Great Learning (Madsen 15:30)

Another golden age

Construction of the famous forbidden city in 1406-1420

Ming Vases were a popular exported good

Literature and Art flourished

The great Wall of China was expanded to keep the Mongols out

Problems with Pirates 

Chinese age of exploration → Explorers went as far as east africa and returned with Giraffe’s to the emperor’s court (Madsen 16:00)

Foreign merchants were limited to outposts but could not really go deeper inside China (Madsen 16:40)

Some emperors had around 10’000 concubines around this dynasty (allegedly)

Famine lead the end of the Ming Dynasty

Qing Dynasty: 1644 - 1912

The Manchu ethnic group ruled China after crossing the great wall (Madsen 17:00)

All men in china were ordered to get the Manchu Hairstyle to show their loyalty to the new Dynasty (Madsen 17:10)

Period of stability followed

Most on the information i could find on the harem system came from this period

Not nearly as glamorous as depicted in C-Dramas (shocker)

“Started as a golden age, ended in disaster” (Epimetheus 5:50) → Opium wars

Fell after the Chinese revolution and the establishment of the Republic of China

The life story of the last Emperor of China is honestly a hot mess. 

After the fall of the Qing Dynasty some Consorts and Concubines had to become prostitutes to survive 

Sources: 

Cartwright, Mark: Warring States Period, World History Encyclopedia, 2017 https://www.worldhistory.org/Warring_States_Period/ 

Cartwright, Mark: Sui Dynasty, World History Encyclopedia, 2017. https://www.worldhistory.org/Sui_Dynasty/

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Yuandi". Encyclopedia Britannica, 16 Apr. 2024, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Yuandi, Accessed 22 March 2025.

Epimetheus: All China’s Dynasties explained in 7 minutes, Youtube, 2018 https://youtu.be/fFNzX3tYTXU?si=eZd4uWgxxgJTlufI 

TSIN, Micheal: China - Timeline of Historical Periods, Asia for Educators, Columbia University, 1995 https://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/china_timeline.htm 

MADSEN, Jared: All of China’s Dynasties in ONE Video - Chinese history 101, youtube, 5th August 2022https://youtu.be/Fz_uQNQBK0g?si=Dm4_3DoomfgN7jZo 

Mark, Joshua: Han Dynasty, World History Encyclopedia, 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/Han_Dynasty/

Mark, Joshua: Qin Dynasty, World History Encyclopedia, 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/Qin_Dynasty/

MONTGOMERY, Lazlo: The Han Dynasty (Part 1), in: the chinese history podcast, Ep. 18 https://open.spotify.com/episode/1umFA07mSPCuPyCCcAKiK4?si=pe4iHig8QFOO6_-kv9XTzg 

Poupart, Jean-Baptiste: Han Dynasty, Academia https://academia.edu/resource/work/40640987 

Zhao, Xiran Jay: China’s forgotten Warrior Queen – Fu Hao, Youtube, 2022.