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Cat whisperer

The Knight and the Maiden

1897

PROLOGUE GILGAMESH KING IN URUK I WILL proclaim to the world the deeds of Gilgamesh. This was the man to whom all things were known; this was the king who knew the countries of the world. He was wise, he saw mysteries and knew secret things, he brought us a tale of the days before the flood. He went on a long journey, was weary, worn-out with labor, returning he rested, he engraved on a stone the whole story. When the gods created Gilgamesh they gave him a perfect body. Shamash the glorious sun endowed him with beauty, Adad the god of the storm endowed him with courage, the great gods made his beauty perfect, surpassing all others, terrifying like a great wild bull. Two thirds they made him god and one third man. In Uruk he built walls, a great rampart, and the temple of blessed Eanna for the god of the firmament Anu, and for Ishtar the goddess of love. Look at it still today: the outer wall where the cornice runs, it shines with the brilliance of copper; and the inner wall, it has no equal. Touch the threshold, it is ancient. Approach Eanna the dwelling of Ishtar, our lady of love and war, the like of which no latter-day king, no man alive can equal. Climb upon the wall of Uruk; walk along it, I say; regard the foundation terrace and examine the. masonry: is it not burnt brick and good? The seven sages laid the foundations.

1 THE COMING OF ENKIDU GILGAMESH went abroad in the world, but he met with none who could withstand his arms till he came to Uruk. But the men of Uruk muttered in their houses, ‘Gilgamesh sounds the tocsin for his amusement, his arrogance has no bounds by day or night. No son is left with his father, for Gilgamesh takes them all, even the children; yet the king should be a shepherd to his people. His lust leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warrior’s daughter nor the wife of the noble; yet this is the shepherd of the city, wise, comely, and resolute.’ The gods heard their lament, the gods of heaven cried to the Lord of Uruk, to Anu the god of Uruk: ‘A goddess made him, strong as a savage bull, none can withstand his arms. No son is left with his father, for Gilgamesh takes them all; and is this the king, the shepherd of his people? His lust leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warrior’s daughter nor the wife of the noble. When Anu had heard their lamentation the gods cried to Aruru, the goddess of creation, ‘You made him, O Aruru; now create his equal; let it be as like him as his own reflection, his second self; stormy heart for stormy heart. Let them contend together and leave Uruk in silence.’ So the goddess conceived an image in her mind, and it was of the stuff of Anu of the firmament. She dipped her hands in water and pinched off clay, she let it fall in the wilderness, and noble Enkidu was created. There was virtue in him of the god of war, of Ninurta himself. His body was rough, he had long hair like a woman’s; it waved like the hair of Nisaba, the goddess of corn. His body was covered with matted hair like Samugan’s, the god of cattle. He was innocent of mankind; he knew nothing of the cultivated land. Enkidu ate grass in the hills with the gazelle and lurked with wild beasts at the water-holes; he had joy in the water with the herds of wild game. But there was a trapper who met him one day face to face at the drinking-hole, for the wild game had entered his territory. On three days he met him face to face, and the trapper was frozen with fear. He went back to his house with the game that he had caught, and he was dumb, benumbed with terror. His face was altered like that of one who has made a long journey. With awe in his heart he spoke to his father: ‘Father, there is a man, unlike any other, who comes down from the hills. He is the strongest in the world, he is like an immortal from heaven. He ranges over the hills with wild beasts and eats grass; he ranges through your land and comes down to the wells. I am afraid and dare not go near him. He fills in the pits which I dig and tears up-my traps set for the game; he helps the beasts to escape and now they slip through my fingers.’ His father opened his mouth and said to the trapper, ‘My son, in Uruk lives Gilgamesh; no one has ever pre- vailed against him, he is strong as a star from heaven. Go to Uruk, find Gilgamesh, extol the strength of this wild man. Ask him to give you a harlot, a wanton from the temple of love; return with her, and let her woman’s power overpower this man. When next he comes down to drink at the wells she will be there, stripped naked; and when he sees her beckoning he will embrace her, and then the wild beasts will reject him.’ So the trapper set out on his journey to Uruk and addressed himself to Gilgamesh saying, ‘A man unlike any other is roaming now in the pastures; he is as strong as a star from heaven and I am afraid to approach him. He helps the wild game to escape; he fills in my pits and pulls up my traps.’ Gilgamesh said, ‘Trapper, go back, take with you a harlot, a child of pleasure. At the drinking hole she will strip, and when he sees her beckoning, he will embrace her and the game of the wilderness will surely reject him.’ Now the trapper returned, taking the harlot with him. After a three days’ journey they came to the drinking hole, and there they sat down; the harlot and the trapper sat . facing one another and waited for the game to come. For the first day and for the second day the two sat waiting, but on the third day the herds came; they came down to drink and Enkidu was with them. The small wild creatures of the plains were glad of the water, and Enkidu with them, who ate grass with the gazelle and was born in the hills; and she saw him, the savage man, come from far-off in the hills. The trapper spoke to her: ‘There he is. Now, woman, make your breasts bare, have no shame, do not delay but welcome his love. Let him see you naked, let him possess your body. When he comes near, uncover yourself and lie with him; teach him, the savage man, your woman’s art, for when he murmurs love to you the wild’ beasts that shared his life in the hills will reject him.’ She was not ashamed to take him, she made herself naked and welcomed his eagerness; as he lay on her murmuring love she taught him the woman’s art For six days and seven nights they lay together, for Enkidu had forgotten his home in the hills; but when he was satisfied he went back to the wild beasts. Then, when the gazelle saw him, they bolted away; when the wild creatures saw him they fled. Enkidu would have followed, but his body was bound a s though with a cord, his knees gave way when he started to run, his swiftness was gone. And now the wild creatures had all fled away; Enkidu had grown weak, for wisdom was in him, and the thoughts of a man were in his heart. So he returned and sat down at the woman’s feet, and listened intently to what she said. ‘You are wise, Enkidu, and now you have become like a god. Why do you want to run wild with the beasts in the hills? Come with me. I will take you to strong-walled Uruk, to the blessed temple of Ishtar and of Anu, of love and of heaven there Gilgamesh lives, who is very strong, and like a wild bull he lords it over men.’ When she had spoken Enkidu was pleased; he longed for a comrade, for one who would understand his heart. Come, woman, and take me to that holy temple, to the house of Anu and of Ishtar, and to the place where Gilgamesh lords it over the people. I will challenge him boldly, I will cry out aloud in Uruk, “I am the strongest here, I have come to change the old order, I am he who was born in the hills, I am he who is strongest of all.’” She said, ‘Let us go, and let him see your face. I know very well where Gilgamesh is in great Uruk. O Enkidu, there all the people are dressed in their gorgeous robes, every day is a holiday, the young men and the girls are wonderful to see. How sweet they smell! All the great ones are roused from their beds. O Enkidu, you who love life, I will show you Gilgamesh, a man of many moods; you shall look at him well in his radiant manhood. His body is perfect in strength and maturity; he never rests by night or day. He is stronger than you, so leave your boasting. Shamash the glorious sun has given favors to Gilgamesh, and Anu of the heavens, and Enlil, and Ea the wise has given him deep understanding, I tell you, even before you have left the wilderness, Gilgamesh will know in his dreams that you are coming.’ Now Gilgamesh got up to tell his dream to his mother; Ninsun, one of the wise gods. ‘Mother, last night I had a dream. I was full of joy, the young heroes were round me and I walked through the night under the stars of the firmament, and one, a meteor of the stuff of Anu, fell down from heaven. I tried to lift it but it proved too heavy. All the people of Uruk came round to see it, the common people jostled and the nobles thronged to kiss its feet; and to me its attraction was like the love of a woman. They helped me, I braced my forehead and I raised it with thongs and brought it to you, and you yourself pronounced it my brother.’ Then Ninsun, who is well-beloved and wise, said to Gilgamesh, ‘This star of heaven which descended like a meteor from the sky; which you tried to lift,“ but found too heavy, when you tried to move it it would not budge, and so you brought it to my feet; I made it for you, a goad and spur, and you were drawn as though to a woman. This is the strong comrade, the one who brings help to his friend in his need. He is the strongest of wild creatures, the stuff of Anu; born in the grass-lands and the wild hills reared him; when you see him you will be glad; you will love him as a woman and he will never forsake you. This is the meaning of the dream.’ Gilgamesh said, ‘Mother, I dreamed a second dream. In the streets of strong-walled Uruk there lay an axe; the shape of it was strange and the people thronged round. I saw it and was glad. I bent down, deeply drawn towards it; I loved it like a woman and wore it at my side.’ Ninsun answered, ‘That axe, which you saw, which drew you so powerfully like love of a woman, that is the comrade whom I give you, and he will come in his strength like one of the host of heaven. He is the brave companion who rescues his friend in necessity.’ Gilgamesh said to his mother, ‘A friend, a counselor has come to me from Enlil, and now I shall befriend and counsel him.’ So Gilgamesh told his dreams; and the harlot retold them to Enkidu. And now she said to Enkidu, ‘When I look at you you have become like a god. Why do you yearn to run wild again with the beasts in the hills? Get up from the ground, the bed of a shepherd.’ He listened to her words with care. It was good advice that she gave. She divided her clothing in two and with the one half she clothed him and with the other herself, and holding his hand she led him like a child to the sheepfolds, into the shepherds’ tents. There all the shepherds crowded round to see him, they put down bread in front of him, but Enkidu could only suck the milk of wild animals. He fumbled and gaped, at a loss what to do or how he should eat the bread and drink the strong wine. Then the woman said, ‘Enkidu, eat bread, it is the staff of life; drink the wine, it is the custom of the land.’ So he ate till he was full and drank strong wine, seven goblets. He became merry, his heart exulted and his face shone. He rubbed down the matted hair of his body and anointed himself with oil. Enkidu had become a man; but when he had put on man’s clothing he appeared like a bridegroom. He took arms to hunt the lion so that the shepherds could rest at night. He caught wolves and lions and the herdsmen lay down in peace; for Enkidu was their watchman, that strong man who had no rival. He was merry living with the shepherds, till one day lifting his eyes he saw a man approaching. He said to the harlot, ‘Woman, fetch that man here. Why has he come? I wish to know his name.’ She went and called the man saying, ‘Sir, where are you going on this weary journey?’ The man answered, saying to Enkidu, ‘Gilgamesh has gone into the marriage-house and shut out the people. He does strange things in Umk, the city of great streets. At the roll of the drum work begins for the men, and work for the women. Gilgamesh the king is about to celebrate marriage with the Queen of Love, and he still demands to be first with the bride, the king to be first and the husband to follow, for that was ordained by the gods from his birth, from the time the umbilical cord was cut. But now the drums roll for the choice of the bride and the city groans.’ At these words Enkidu turned white in the face. ‘I will go to the place where Gilgamesh lords it over the people, I will challenge him boldly, and I will cry aloud in Uruk, “I have come to change the old order, for I am the strongest here.” Now Enkidu strode in front and the woman followed behind. He entered Umk, that great market, and all the folk thronged round him where he stood in the street in strong-walled Umk. The people jostled; speaking of him they said, ‘He is the spit of Gilgamesh. ‘He is shorter.’ ‘He is bigger of bone.’ This is the one who was reared on the milk of wild beasts. His is the greatest strength.’ The men rejoiced: ‘Now Gilgamesh has met his match. This great one, this hero whose beauty is like a god, he is a match even for Gilgamesh. ’ In Umk the bridal bed was made, fit for the goddess of love. The bride waited for the bridegroom, but in the night Gilgamesh got up and came to the house. Then Enkidu stepped out, he stood in the street and blocked the way. Mighty Gilgamesh came on and Enkidu met him at the gate. He put out his foot and prevented Gilgamesh from entering the house, so they grappled, holding each other like bulls. They broke the doorposts and the walls shook, they snorted like bulls locked together. They shattered the doorposts and the walls shook. Gilgamesh bent his knee with his foot planted on the ground and with a turn Enkidu was thrown. Then immediately his fury died. When Enkidu was thrown he said to Gilgamesh, ‘There is not another like you in the world. Ninsun, who is as strong as a wild ox in the byre, she was the mother who bore you, and now you are raised above all men, and Enlil has given you the kingship, for your strength sur- passes the strength of men.’ So Enkidu and Gilgamesh embraced and their friendship was sealed.

2 THE FOREST JOURNEY ENLIL of the mountain, the father of the gods, had decreed the destiny of Gilgamesh. So Gilgamesh dreamed and Enkidu said, ‘The meaning of the dream is this. The father of the gods has given you kingship, such is your destiny, everlasting life is not your destiny. Because of this do not be sad at heart, do not be grieved or oppressed. He has given you power to bind and to loose, to be the darkness and the light of mankind. He has given you unexampled supremacy over the people, victory in battle from which no fugitive returns, in forays and assaults from which there is no going back. But do not abuse this power, deal justly with your servants in the palace, deal justly before Shamash.’ The eyes of Enkidu were full of tears and his heart was sick. He sighed bitterly and Gilgamesh met his eye and said,’ My friend, why do you sigh so bitterly? But Enkidu opened his mouth and said, ‘I am weak, my arms have lost their strength, the cry of sorrow sticks in my throat, I am oppressed by idleness.’ It was then that the lord Gilgamesh turned his thoughts to the Country of the Living; on the Land of Cedars the lord Gilgamesh reflected. He said to his servant Enkidu, ‘I have not established my name stamped on bricks as my destiny decreed; therefore I will go to the country where the cedar is felled. I will set up my name in the place where the names of famous men are written, and where- no man’s name is written yet I will wise a monument to the gods. Because o£ the evil that is in the land, we will go to the forest and destroy the evil; for in the forest lives Humbaba whose name is “Hugeness”, , a ferocious giant. But Enkidu sighed bitterly and said, ‘When I went with the wild beasts ranging through the wilderness I discovered the forest; its length is ten thousand leagues in every direction. Enlil has appointed Humbaba to guard it and armed him iii sevenfold terrors, terrible to all flesh is Humbaba. When he roars it is like the torrent of the storm, his breath is like fire, and his jaws are death itself. He guards the cedars so well that when the wild heifer stirs in the forest, though she is sixty leagues distant, he hears her. What man would willingly walk into that country and explore its depths? I tell you, weakness overpowers whoever goes near it; it is not an equal struggle when one fights with Humbaba; he is a great warrior, a battering-ram. Gilgamesh, the watchman of the forest never sleeps.’ Gilgamesh replied: 'Where is the man who can clamber to heaven? Only the gods live for ever with glorious Shamash, but as for us men, our days are numbered, our occupations are a breath of wind. How is this, already you are afraid! I will go first although I am your lord, and you may safely call out, “Forward, there is nothing to fear!” Then if I fall I leave behind me a name that endures; men will say of me, “Gilgamesh has fallen in fight with ferocious Humbaba.” Long after the child has been born in my house, they will say it, and remember.’ Enkidu spoke again to Gilgamesh, 'O my lord, if you will enter that country, go first to the hero Shamash, tell the Sun God, for the land is his. The country where the cedar is cut belongs to Shamash.’ Gilgamesh took up a kid, white without spot, and a brown one with it; he held them against his breast, and he carried them into the presence of the sun. He took i n his hand his silver sceptre and he said to glorious Shamash, Tam going to that country, O Shamash, I am going; my hands supplicate, so let it be well with my soul and bring me back to the quay of Uruk. Grant, I beseech, your protection, and let the omen be good.’ Glorious Shamash answered, ‘Gilgamesh, you are strong, but what i s the Country of the Living to you? 'O Shamash, hear me, hear me, Shamash, let my voice be heard. Here in the city man dies oppressed at heart, man perishes with despair in his heart. I have looked over the wall and I see the bodies floating on the river, and that will be my lot also. Indeed I know it is so, for whoever is tallest among men cannot reach the heavens, and the greatest cannot encompass the earth. Therefore I would enter that country: because I have not established my name stamped on brick as my destiny decreed, I will go to the country where the cedar is cut. I will set up my name where the names of famous men are written; and where no man’s name is written I will raise a monument to the gods.’ The tears ran down his face and he said, ‘Alas, it is a long journey that I must take to the Land of Humbaba. If this enterprise is not to be accomplished, why did you move me, Shamash, with the restless desire to perform it? How can I succeed if you will not succour me? If I die in that country I will die without rancour, but if I return I will make a glorious offering of gifts and of praise to Shamash.’ So Shamash accepted the sacrifice of his tears; like the compassionate man he showed him mercy. He appointed strong allies for Gilgamesh, sons of one mother, and stationed them in the mountain caves. The great winds he appointed: the north wind, the whirlwind, the stone and the icy wind, the tempest and the scorching wind. Like vipers, like dragons, like a scorching fire, like a serpent that freezes the heart, a destroying flood and the lightning’s fork, such were they and Gilgamesh rejoiced. He went to the forge and said, ..'I will give orders to the armourers; they shall cast us our weapons while we watch them.’ So they gave orders to the armourers and the craftsmen sat down in conference. They went into the groves of the plain and cut willow and box-wood; they cast for them axes of nine score pounds, and great swords they cast with blades of six score pounds each one, with pommels and hilts of thirty pounds. They cast for Gilgamesh the axe ‘Might of Heroes’ and the bow of Anshan; and Gilgamesh was armed and Enkidu; and the weight of the arms they carried was thirty score pounds. The people collected and the counsellors in the streets and in the market-place of Uruk; they came through the gate of seven bolts and Gilgamesh spoke to them in the market-place: ‘I, Gilgamesh, go to see that creature of whom such things are spoken, the rumour of whose name fills the world. I will conquer him in his cedar wood and show the strength of the sons of Uruk, all the world shall know of it. I am committed to this enterprise: to climb the mountain, to cut down the cedar, and leave behind me an enduring name.’ The counsellors of Uruk; the great market, answered him, ‘Gilgamesh, you are young, your courage carries you too far, you cannot know what this enterprise means which you plan. We have heard that Humbaba is not like men who die, his weapons are such that none can stand against them; the forest stretches for ten thousand leagues in every direction; who would willingly go down to explore its depths? As for Humbaba, when he roars it is like the torrent of the storm, his breath is like fire and his jaws are death itself. Why do you crave to do this thing, Gilgamesh? It is no equal struggle when one fights with Humbaba, that battering-ram: When he heard these words of the counsellors Gilgamesh looked at his friend and laughed, ‘How shall I answer them; shall I say I am afraid of Humbaba, I will sit at home all the rest of my days?’ Then Gilgamesh opened his mouth again and said to Enkidu, ‘My friend, let us go to the Great Palace, to Egalmah, and stand before Ninsun the queen. Ninsun is wise with deep knowledge, she will give us counsel for the road we must go.’ They took each other by the hand as they went to Egalmah, and they went to Ninsun the great queen. Gilgamesh approached, he entered the palace and spoke to Ninsun. ‘Ninsun, will you listen to me; I have a long journey to go, to the Land of Humbaba, I must travel an unknown road and fight a strange battle. From the day I go until I return, till I reach the cedar forest and destroy the evil which Shamash abhors, pray for me to Shamash.’ Ninsun went into her room, she put on a dress becoming to her body, she put on jewels to make her breast beautiful, she placed a tiara on her head and her skirts swept the ground. Then she went up to the altar of the Sun, standing upon the roof of the palace; she burnt incense and lifted her arms to Shamash as the smoke ascended: ‘O Shamash, why did you give this restless heart to Gilgamesh, my son; why did you give it? You have moved him and now he sets out on a long journey to the Land of Humbaba, to travel an unknown road and fight a strange battle. Therefore from the day that he goes till the day he returns, until he reaches the cedar forest, until he kills Humbaba and destroys the evil thing which you, Shamash, abhor, do not forget him; but let the dawn, Aya, your dear bride, remind you always, and when day is done give him to the watchman of the night to keep him from harm.’ Then Ninsun the mother of Gilgamesh extinguished the incense, and she called to Enkidu with this exhortation: ‘Strong Enkidu, you are not the child of my body, but I will receive you as my adopted son; you are my other child like the foundlings they bring to the temple. Serve Gilgamesh as a foundling serves the temple and the priestess who reared him. In the presence of my women, any votaries and hierophants, I declare it.’ Then she placed - the amulet for a pledge round his neck, and she said to him, ‘I entrust my son to you; bring him back to me safely.’ And now they brought to them the weapons, they put in their hands the great swords in their golden scabbards, and the bow and the quiver. Gilgamesh took the axe, he slung the quiver from his -shoulder, and the bow of Anshan, and buckled the sword to his belt; and so they were armed and ready for the journey. Now all the people came and pressed on them and said, ‘When will you return to the city? The counsellors blessed Gilgamesh and warned him, ‘Do not trust too much in your own strength, be watchful, restrain your blows at first. The one who goes in front protects his companion; the good guide who knows the way guards his friend. Let Enkidu lead the way, he knows the road to the forest, he has seen Humbaba and is experienced in battles; let him press first into the passes, let him be watchful and look to himself. Let-Enkidu protect his friend, and guard his companion, and bring him safe through the pitfalls of the road. We, the counsellors of Uruk entrust our king to you, O Enkidu; bring him back safely to us.’ Again to Gilgamesh, they said, ‘May Shamash give you your heart’s desire, may he let you see with your eyes the thing accomplished which your lips have spoken; may he open a path for you where it is blocked, and a road for your feet to tread. May he open the mountains for your crossing, and may the nighttime bring you the blessings of night, and Lugulbanda, your guardian god, stand beside you for victory. May you have victory in the battle as though you fought with a child. Wash your feet in the river of Humbaba to which you are journeying; in the evening dig a well, and let there always be pure water in your water-skin. Offer cold water to Shamash and do not forget Lugulbanda.’ Then Enkidu opened his mouth and said, ‘Forward, there is nothing to fear. Follow me, for I know the place where Humbaba lives and the paths where he walks. Let the counsellors go back. Here is no cause for fear.’ When the counsellors heard this they sped the hero on his way. ‘Go, Gilgamesh, may your guardian god protect you on the road and bring you safely back to the quay of Uruk.’ After twenty leagues they broke their fast; after another thirty leagues they stopped for the night. Fifty leagues they walked in one day; in three days they had walked as much as a journey of a month and two weeks. They crossed seven mountains before they came to the gate of the forest. Then Enkidu called out to Gilgamesh, ‘Do not go down into the forest; when I opened the gate my hand lost its strength.’ Gilgamesh answered him, ‘Dear friend, do not speak like a coward. Have we got the better of so many dangers and travelled so far, to turn back at last? You, who are tried in wars and battles, hold dose to me now and you will feel no fear of death; keep beside me and your weakness will pass, the trembling will leave your hand. Would my friend rather stay behind? No, we will go down together into the heart of the forest. Let your courage be roused by the battle to come; forget death and follow me, a man resolute in action, but one who is not foolhardy. When two go together each will protect himself and shield his companion, and if they fall they leave an enduring name.’ Together they went down into the forest and they came to the green mountain. There they stood still, they were struck dumb; they stood still and gazed at the forest. They saw the height of the cedar, they saw the way into the forest and the track where Humbaba used to walk. The way was broad and the going was good. They gazed at the mountain of cedars, the dwelling-place of the gods and the throne of Ishtar. The hugeness of the cedar rose in front of the mountain, its shade was beautiful, full of comfort; mountain and glade were green with brushwood: There Gilgamesh dug a well before the setting sun. He went up the mountain and poured out fine meal on the ground and said, ‘O mountain, dwelling of the gods, bring me a favourable dream.’ Then they took each other’ by the hand and lay down to sleep; and sleep that flows from the night lapped over them. Gilgamesh dreamed, and at midnight sleep left him, and he told his dream to his friend. ‘Enkidu, what was it that woke me if you did not? My friend, I have dreamed a dream. Get up, look at the mountain precipice. The sleep that the gods sent me is broken. Ah, my friend, what a dream I have had ! Terror and confusion; I seized hold of a wild bull in the wilderness. It bellowed and beat up the dust till the whole sky was dark, my arm was seized and my tongue bitten. I fell back on my knee; then someone refreshed me with water from his water-skin.’ Enkidu said, ‘Dear friend, the god to whom we are travelling is no wild bull, though his form is mysterious. That wild bull which you saw is Shamash the Protector; in our moment of peril he will take our hands. The one who gave water from his water-skin, that is your own god who cares for your good name, your Lugulbanda. United with him, together we will accomplish a work the fame of which will never die.’ Gilgamesh said, ‘I dreamed again. We stood in a deep gorge of the mountain, and beside it we two were like the smallest of swamp flies; and suddenly the mountain fell, it struck me and caught my feet from under me. Then came an intolerable light blazing out, and in it was one whose grace and whose beauty were greater than the beauty of this world. He pulled me out from under the mountain, he gave me water to drink and my heart was comforted, and he set my feet on the ground.’ Then Enkidu the child of the plains said, ‘Let us go down from the mountain and talk this thing over together.’ He said to Gilgamesh the young god, ‘Your dream is good, your dream is excellent, the mountain which you saw is Humbaba. Now, surely, we will seize and kill him, and throw his body down as the mountain fell on the plain.’ The next day after twenty leagues they broke their fast, and after another thirty they stopped for the night. They dug a well before the sun had set and Gilgamesh ascended the mountain. He poured out fine meal on the ground and said, ‘O mountain, dwelling of the gods, send a dream for Enkidu, make him a favourable dream.’ The mountain fashioned a dream for Enkidu; it came, an ominous dream; a cold shower passed over him, it caused him to cower like the mountain barley under a storm of rain. But Gilgamesh sat with his chin on his knees till the sleep which flows over all mankind lapped over him. Then, at midnight, sleep left him; he got up and said to his friend, ‘Did you call me, or why did I wake? Did you touch me, or why am I terrified? Did not some god pass by, for my limbs are numb with fear? My friend, I saw a third dream and this dream was altogether frightful. The heavens roared and the earth roared again, daylight failed and darkness fell, lightning flashed, fire blazed out, the clouds lowered, they rained down death. Then the brightness departed, the fire went out, and all was turned to ashes fallen about us. Let us go down from the mountain and talk this over, and consider what we should do.’ When they had come down from the mountain Gilgamesh seized the axe in his hand: he felled the cedar. When Humbaba heard the noise far off he was enraged; he cried out, ‘Who is this that has violated my woods and cut down my cedar?’ But glorious Shamash called to them out of heaven, ’Go forward, do not be afraid.’ But now Gilgamesh was overcome by weakness, for sleep had seized him suddenly, a profound sleep held him; he lay on the ground, stretched out speechless, as though in a dream. When Enkidu touched him he did not rise, when he spoke to him he did not reply. ‘O Gilgamesh, Lord of the plain of Kullab, the world grows dark, the shadows have spread over it, now is the glimmer of dusk. Shamash has departed, his bright head is quenched in the bosom of his mother Ningal. O Gilgamesh, how long will you lie like this, asleep? Never let the mother who gave you birth be forced in mourning into the city square.’ At length Gilgamesh heard him; lie put on his breastplate, ‘The Voice of Heroes’, of thirty shekels’ weight; he put it on as though it had been a light garment that he carried, and it covered him altogether. He straddled the earth like a bull that snuffs the ground and his teeth were clenched. ‘By the life of my mother Ninsun who gave me birth, and by the life of my father, divine Lugulbanda, let me live to be the wonder of my mother, as when she nursed me on her lap.’ A second time he said to him, ‘By the life of Ninsun my mother who gave me birth, and by the life of my father, divine Lugulbanda, until we have fought this man, if man he is, this god, if god he is, the way that I took to the Country of the Living will not turn back to the city.’ Then Enkidu, the faithful companion, pleaded, answering him, ‘O my lord, you do not know this monster and that is the reason you are not afraid. I who know him, I am terrified. His teeth are dragon’s fangs, his countenance is like a lion, his charge i s the rushing of the flood, with his look he crushes alike the trees of the forest and reeds in the swamp. O my Lord, you may go on if you choose into this land, but I will go back to the city. I will tell the lady your mother all your glorious’ deeds till she shouts for joy: and then I will tell the death that followed till she weeps for bitterness.’ But Gilgamesh said, ‘Immolation and sacrifice are not yet for me, the boat of the dead shall not go down, nor the three-ply cloth be cut for my shrouding. Not yet will my people be desolate, nor the pyre be lit in my house and my dwelling burnt on the fire. Today, give me your aid and you shall have mine: what then can go amiss with us two? All living creatures born of the flesh shall sit at last in the boat of the West, and when it sinks, when the boat of Magilum sinks, they are gone; but we shall go forward and fix our eyes on this monster. If your heart is fearful throw away fear; if there is terror in it throw away terror. Take your axe in your hand and attack. He who leaves the fight unfinished is not at peace.’ Humbaba came out from his strong house of cedar. Then Enkidu called out, ‘O Gilgamesh, remember now your boasts in Uruk. Forward, attack, son of Uruk, there is nothing to fear.’ When he heard these words his courage rallied; he answered, ‘Make haste, close in, if the watchman is there do not let him escape to the woods where he will vanish. He has put on the first of his seven splendours but not yet the other six, let us trap him before he is armed.’ Like a raging wild bull he snuffed the ground; the watchman of the woods turned full of threatenings, he cried out. Humbaba came from his strong house of cedar. He nodded his head and shook it, menacing Gilgamesh; and on him he fastened his eye, the eye of death. Then Gilgamesh called to Shamash and his tears were flowing, ‘O glorious Shamash, I have followed the road you commanded but now if you send no succour how shall I escape? Glorious Shamash heard his prayer and he summoned the great wind, the north wind, the whirlwind, the storm and the icy wind, the tempest and the scorching wind; they came like dragons, like a scorching fire, like a serpent that freezes the heart, a destroying flood and the lightning’s fork. The eight winds rose up against Humbaba, they beat against his eyes; he was gripped, unable to go forward or back. Gilgamesh shouted, ‘By the life of Ninsun my mother and divine Lugulbanda my father, in the Country of the Living, in this Land I have discovered your dwelling; my weak arms and my small weapons I have brought to this Land against you, and now I will enter your house’. So he felled the first cedar and they cut the branches and laid them at the foot of the mountain. At the first stroke Humbaba blazed out, but still they advanced. They felled seven cedars and cut and bound the branches and laid them at the foot of the mountain, and seven times Humbaba loosed his glory on them. As the seventh blaze died out they reached his lair. He slapped his thigh in scorn. He approached like a noble wild bull roped on the mountain, a warrior whose elbows are bound together. The tears started to his eyes and he was pale, ‘Gilgamesh, let me speak. I have never known a mother, no, nor a father who reared me. I was born of the mountain, he reared me, and Enlil made me the keeper of this forest. Let me go free, Gilgamesh, and I will be your servant, you shall be my lord; all the trees of the forest that I tended on the mountain shall be yours. I will cut them down and build you a palace.’ He took him by the hand and led him to his house, so that the heart of Gilgamesh was moved with compassion. He swore by the heavenly life, by the earthly life, by the underworld itself: ‘O Enkidu, should not the snared bird return to its nest and the captive man return to his mother’s arms?’ Enkidu answered, ‘The strongest of men will fall to fate if he has no judgement. Namtar, the evil fate that knows no distinction between men, will devour him. If the snared bird returns to its nest, if the captive man returns to his mother’s arms, then you my friend will never return to the city where the mother is waiting who gave you birth. He will bar the mountain road against you, and make the pathways impassable.’ Humbaba said, 'Enkidu, what you have spoken is evil: you, a hireling, dependent for your bread! In envy and for fear of a rival you have spoken evil words.’ Enkidu said, ‘Do not listen, Gilgamesh: this Humbaba must die. Kill Humbaba first and his servants after.’ But Gilgamesh said, 'If we touch him the blaze and the glory of light will be put out in confusion, the glory and glamour will vanish, its rays will be quenched.’ Enkidu said to Gilgamesh, ‘Not so, my friend. First entrap the bird, and where shall the chicks runn then? Afterwards we can search out the glory and the glamour, when the chicks run distracted through the grass.’ Gilgamesh listened to the word of his companion, he took the axe in his hand, he drew the sword from his belt, and he struck Humbaba with a thrust of the sword to the neck, and Enkidu, his comrade struck the second blow. At the third blow Humbaba fell. Then there followed confusion for this was the guardian of the forest whom they had felled to the ground. For as far as two leagues the cedars shivered when Enkidu felled the watcher of the forest, he at whose voice Hermon and Lebanon used to tremble. Now the mountains were moved and all the hills, for the guardian of the forest was killed. They attacked the cedars, the seven splendours of Humbaba were extinguished. So they pressed on into the forest bearing the sword of eight talents. They uncovered the sacred dwellings of the Anunnaki and while Gilgamesh felled the first of the trees of the forest Enkidu cleared their roots as far as the banks of Euphrates. They set Humbaba before the gods, before Enlil; they kissed the ground and dropped the shroud and set the head before him. When he saw the head of Humbaba, Enlil raged at them. ‘Why did you do this thing? From henceforth may the fire be on your faces, may it eat the bread that you eat, may it drink where you drink.’ Then Enlil took again the blaze and the seven splendours that had been Humbaba’s: he gave the first to the river, and he gave to the lion, to the stone of execration, to the mountain and to the dreaded daughter of the Queen of Hell. O Gilgamesh, king and conqueror of the dreadful blaze; wild bull who plunders the mountain, who crosses the sea, glory to him, and from the brave the greater glory is Enki’s!

3 ISHTAR AND GILGAMESH, AND THE DEATH OF ENKIDU GILGAMESH Washed out his long locks and cleaned his weapons; he flung back his hair from his shoulders; he threw off his stained clothes and changed them for new. He put on his royal robes and made them fast. When Gilgamesh had put on the crown, glorious Ishtar lifted her eyes, seeing the beauty of Gilgamesh. She said, ‘Come to me Gilgamesh, and be my bridegroom; grant me seed of your body, let me be your bride and you shall be my husband. I will harness for you a chariot of lapis lazuli and of gold, with wheels of gold and horns of copper; and you shall have mighty demons of the storm for draft mules. When you enter our house in the fragrance of cedar-wood, threshold and throne will kiss your feet. Kings, rulers, and princes will bow down before you; they shall bring you tribute from the mountains and the plain. Your ewes shall drop twins and your goats triplets; your pack-ass shall outrun mules; your oxen shall have no rivals, and your chariot horses shall be famous far-off for their swiftness.’ Gilgamesh opened his mouth and answered glorious Ishtar, ‘If I take you in marriage, what gifts can I give in return? What ointments and clothing for your body? I would gladly give you bread and all sorts of food fit for a god. I would give you wine to drink fit for a queen. I would pour out barley to stuff your granary; but as for making you my wife - that I will not. How would it go with me? Your lovers have found you like a brazier which smoulders in the cold, a backdoor which keeps out neither squall of wind nor storm, a castle which crushes the garrison, pitch that blackens the bearer, a water-skin that chafes the carrier, a stone which falls from the parapet, a battering-ram turned back from the enemy, a sandal that trips the wearer. Which of your lovers did you ever love forever? What shepherd of yours has pleased you for all time? Listen to me while I tell the tale of your lovers. There was Tammuz, the lover of your youth, for him you decreed wailing, year after year. You loved the many coloured roller, but still you struck and broke his wing; now in the grove he sits and cries, “kappi, kappi, my wing, my wing.” You have loved the lion tremendous in strength: seven pits you dug for him, and seven. You have loved the stallion magnificent in battle, and for him you decreed whip and spur and a thong, to gallop seven leagues by force and to muddy the water before he drinks; and for his mother Silili lamentations. You have loved the shepherd of the flock; he made meal-cake for you day after day, he killed kids for your sake. You struck and turned him into a wolf, now his own herd-boys chase him away, his own hounds worry his flanks. And did you not love Ishullanu, the gardener of your father’s palm grove? He brought you baskets filled with dates without end; every day he loaded your table. Then you turned your eyes on him and said, “Dearest Ishullanu, come here to me, let us enjoy your manhood, come forward and take me, I am yours.’ Ishullanu answered, “What are you asking from me? My mother has baked and I have eaten; why should I come to such as you for food that is tainted and rotten? For when was a screen of rushes sufficient protection from frosts?” But when you had heard his answer, you struck him. He was changed to a blind mole deep in the earth, one whose desire is always beyond his reach. And if you and I should be lovers, should not I be served in the same fashion as all these others whom you loved once?’ When Ishtar heard this she fell into a bitter rage, she went up to high heaven. Her tears poured down in front of her father Anu, and Antum her mother. She said, ‘My father, Gilgamesh has heaped insults on me, he has told over all my abominable behaviour, my foul and hideous acts.’ Anu opened his mouth and said, ‘Are you a father of gods? Did not you quarrel with Gilgamesh the king, so now he has related your abominable behaviour, your foul and hideous acts.’ Ishtar opened her mouth and said again, ‘My father, give me the Bull of Heaven to destroy Gilgamesh. Fill Gilgamesh, I say, with arrogance to his destruction; but if you refuse to give me the Bull of Heaven I will break in the doors of hell and smash the bolts; there will be confusion of people, those above with those from the lower depths. I shall bring up the dead to eat food like the living; and the hosts of dead will outnumber the living.’ Anusa d to great Ishtar, ‘If I do what you desire there will be seven years of drought throughout Uruk when corn will be seedless husks. Have you saved grain enough for the people and grass for the cattle? Ishtar replied. ‘I have saved grain for the people, grass for the cattle; for seven years o£ seedless husks’ there is grain and there is grass enough.’ When Anu heard what Ishtar had said he gave her the Bull of Heaven to lead by the halter down to Uruk: When they reached the gates of Uruk the Bull went to the river; with his first snort cracks opened in the earth and, a hundred young men fell down to death. With his second snort, cracks opened and two hundred fell down to death. With his third snort cracks opened, Enkidu doubled over but instantly recovered, he dodged aside and leapt on the Bull and seized it by the horns. The Bull of Heaven foamed in his face, it brushed him with the thick of its tail. Enkidu cried to Gilgamesh, 'my friend, we boasted that we would leave enduring names behind us. Now thrust in your sword between the nape and the horns.’ So Gilgamesh followed the Bull, he seized the thick of its tail, he thrust the sword between the nape and the horns and slew the Bull. When they had killed the Bull of Heaven they cut out its heart and gave it to Shamash, and the brothers rested. But Ishtar rose and mounted the great wall of Uruk; she sprang on to the tower and uttered a curse: ‘Woe to Gilgamesh, for he has scorned me in killing the Bull of Heaven.’ When Enkidu heard these words he tore out the Bull’s right thigh and tossed it in her face saying, ‘If I could lay my hands on you, it is this I should do to you, and lash the entrails to your side.’ Then Ishtar called together her people, the dancing and singing girls, the prostitutes of the temple, the courtesans. Over the thigh of the Bull of Heaven she set up lamentation. But Gilgamesh called the smiths and the armourers, all of them together. They admired the immensity of the horns. They were plated with lapis lazuli two fingers thick. They were thirty pounds each in weight, and their capacity in oil was six measures, which he gave to his guardian god, Lugulbanda. But he carried the horns into the palace and hung them on the wall. Then they washed their hands in Euphrates, they embraced each other and went away. They drove through the streets of Uruk where the heroes were gathered to see them, and Gilgamesh called to the singing girls, ‘Who is most glorious of the heroes, who is most eminent among men?’ ‘Gilgamesh is the most glorious of heroes, Gilgamesh is most eminent among men.’ And now there was feasting, and celebrations and joy in the palace, till the heroes lay down saying, ‘Now we will rest for the night.’ When the daylight came Enkidu got up and cried to Gilgamesh, ‘O my brother, such a dream I had last night. Anu, Enlil, Ea and heavenly Shamash took counsel together, and Anu said to Enlil, “Because they have killed the Bull of Heaven, and because they have killed Humbaba who guarded the Cedar Mountain one of the two must die.” Then glorious Shamash answered the hero Enlil, “It was by your command they killed the Bull of Heaven, and killed Humbaba, and must Enkidu die although innocent?” Enlil flung round in rage at glorious Shamash, “You dare to say this, you who went about with them every day like one of themselves!”’ So Enkidu lay stretched out before Gilgamesh; his tears ran down in streams and he said to Gilgamesh, ’ O my brother, so dear as you are to me, brother, yet they will take me from you.’ Again he said, T must sit down on the threshold of the dead and never again will I see my dear brother with my eyes.’ While Enkidu lay alone in his sickness he cursed the gate as though it was living flesh, ‘You there, wood of the gate, dull and insensible, witless, I searched for you over twenty leagues until I saw the towering cedar. There is no wood like you in our land. Seventy -two cubits high and twenty-four wide, the pivot and the ferrule and the jambs are perfect. A master craftsman from Nippur has made you; but O, if I had known the conclusion! If I had known that this was all the good that would come of it, I would have raised the axe and split you into little pieces and set up here a gate of wattle instead. Ah, if only some future king had brought you here, or some god- had fashioned you. Let him obliterate my name and write his own, and the curse fall on him instead of on Enkidu.’ With the first brightening of dawn Enkidu raised his head and wept before the Sun God, in the brilliance of the sunlight his tears streamed down. ‘Sun God, I beseech you, about that vile Trapper, that Trapper of nothing because of whom I was to catch less than my comrade; let him catch least, make his game scarce, make him feeble, taking the smaller of every share, let his quarry escape from his nets.’ When he had cursed the Trapper to his heart’s content he turned on the harlot. He was roused to curse her also. ‘As for you, woman, with a great curse I curse you! I will promise you a destiny to all eternity. My curse shall come on you soon and sudden. You shall be without a roof for your commerce, for you shall not keep house with other girls in the tavern, but do your business in places fouled by the vomit of the drunkard. Your hire will be potter’s earth, your thievings will be flung into the hovel, you will sit at the cross-roads in the dust of the potter’s quarter, you will make your bed on the dunghill at night, and by day take your stand in the wall’s shadow. Brambles and thorns will tear your feet, the drunk and the dry will strike your cheek and your mouth will ache. Let you be stripped of your purple dyes, for I too once in the wilderness with my wife had all the treasure I wished.’ When Shamash heard the words of Enkidu he called to him from heaven: ‘Enkidu, why are you cursing the woman, the mistress who taught you to eat bread fit for gods and drink wine of kings? She who put upon you a ‘magnificent garment, did she not give you glorious Gilgamesh for your companion, and has not Gilgamesh, your own brother, made you rest on a 'royal bed and recline on a couch at his left hand? He has made the princes of the earth kiss your feet, and now all the people of Uruk lament and wail over you. When you are dead he will let his hair grow long for your sake, he will wear a lion’s pelt and wander through the desert.’ When Enkidu heard glorious Shamash his angry heart grew quiet, he called back the curse and said, ‘Woman, I promise you another destiny. The mouth which cursed you shall bless you! Kings, princes and nobles shall adore you. On your account a man twelve miles off will clap his hand to his thigh and his hair will twitch. For you he will undo his belt and open his treasure and you shall have your desire; lapis lazuli, gold and’ carnelian from the heap in the treasury. A ring for your hand and a robe shall be yours. The priest will lead you into the presence of the gods. On your account a wife, a mother of seven, was forsaken.’ As Enkidu slept alone in his sickness, in bitterness of spirit he poured out his heart to his friend. 'It was I who cut down the cedar, I who levelled the forest, I who slew Humbaba and now see what has become of me. Listen, my friend, this is the dream I dreamed last night. The heavens roared, and earth rumbled back an answer; between them stood I before an awful being, the sombre-faced man-bird; he had directed on me his purpose. His was a vampire face, his foot was a lion’s foot, his hand was an eagle’s talon. He fell on me and his claws were in my hair, he held me fast and I smothered; then he transformed me so that my arms became wings covered with feathers. He turned his stare towards me, and he led me away to the palace of Irkalla, the Queen of Darkness, to the house from which none who enters ever returns, down the road from which there is no coming back. ‘There is the house whose people sit in darkness; dust is their food and clay their meat. They are clothed like birds “ with wings for covering, they see no light, they sit in darkness. I entered the house of dust and I saw the kings of the earth, their crowns put away for ever; rulers and princes, all those who once wore kingly crowns and ruled the world in the days of old. They who had stood in the place of the gods like Ann and Enlil stood now like servants to fetch baked meats in the house of dust, to carry cooked meat and cold water from the water-skin. In the house of dust which I entered were high priests and acolytes, priests of the incantation and of ecstasy; there were servers of the temple, and there was Etana, that king of Dish whom the eagle carried to heaven in the days of old. I saw also Samuqan, god of cattle, and there was Ereshkigal the Queen of the Underworld; and Befit-Sheri squatted in front of her, she who is the recorder of the gods and keeps the book of death. She held a tablet from which she read. She raised her head, she saw me and spoke:” Who has brought this one here?“ Then I awoke like a man drained of blood who wanders alone in a waste of rashes; like one whom the bailiff has seized and his heart pounds with terror.’ Gilgamesh had peeled off his clothes, he listened to his words and wept quick tears, Gilgamesh listened and his tears flowed. He opened his mouth and spoke to Enkidu: ‘Who is there in strong-walled Uruk who has wisdom like this? Strange things have been spoken, why does your heart speak strangely? The dream was marvellous but the terror was great; we must treasure the dream whatever the terror; for the dream has shown that misery comes at last to the healthy man, the end of life is sorrow.’ And Gilgamesh lamented, ‘Now I will pray to the great gods, for my friend had an ominous dream.’ This day on which Enkidu dreamed came to an end and be lay stricken with sickness. One whole day he lay on his bed and his suffering increased. He said to Gilgamesh, the friend on whose account he had left the wilderness, 'Once I ran for you, for the water of life, and I now have nothing:’ A second day he lay on his bed and Gilgamesh watched over him but the sickness increased. A third day he lay on his bed, he called out to Gilgamesh, rousing him up. Now he was weak and his eyes were blind with weeping. Ten days he lay and his suffering increased, eleven and twelve days he lay on his bed of pain. Then he called to Gilgamesh, 'My friend, the great goddess cursed me and I must die in shame. I shall not die like a man fallen in battle; I feared to fall, but happy is the man who falls in the battle, for I must die in shame.’ And Gilgamesh wept over Enkidu. With the first light of dawn he raised his voice and said to the counsellors of Uruk: ‘Hear me, great ones of Uruk, I weep for Enkidu, my friend. Bitterly moaning like a woman mourning I weep for my brother. O Enkidu, my brother, You were the axe at my side, My hand’s strength, the sword in my belt, The shield before me, A glorious robe, my fairest ornament; An evil Fate has robbed me. The wild ass and the gazelle That were father and mother, All long-tailed creatures that nourished you Weep for you, All the wild things of the plain and pastures; The paths that you loved in the forest of cedars Night and day murmur. Let the great ones of strong-walled Uruk Weep for you; Let the finger of blessing Be stretched out in mourning; Enkidu, young brother. Hark, There is an echo through all the country Like a mother mourning. Weep all the paths where we walked together; And the beasts we hunted, the bear and hyena, Tiger and panther, leopard and lion, The stag and the ibex, the bull and the doe. The river along whose banks we used to walk, Weeps for you, Ula of Elam and dear Euphrates Where once we drew water for the water-skins. The mountain we climbed where we slew the Watchman, Weeps for you. The warriors of strong-walled Uruk Where the Bull of Heaven was killed, Weep for you. All the people of Eridu Weep for you Enkidu. Those who brought grain for your eating Mourn for you now; Who rubbed oil on your back Mourn for you now; Who poured beer for your drinking Mourn for you now. The harlot who anointed you with fragrant ointment Laments for you now; The women of the palace, who brought you a wife, A chosen ring of good advice, Lament for you now. And the young men, your brothers As though they were women Go long-haired in mourning. What is this sleep which holds you now? You are lost in the dark and cannot hear me. ’ He touched his heart but it did not beat, nor did he lift his eyes again. When Gilgamesh touched his heart it did not beat. So Gilgamesh laid a veil, as one veils the bride, over his friend. He began to rage like a lion, like a lioness robbed of her whelps. This way and that he paced round the bed, he tore out his hair and strewed it around. He dragged of his splendid robes and flung them down as though they were abominations. In the first light of dawn Gilgamesh cried out, ‘I made you rest on a royal bed, you reclined on a couch at my left hand, the princes of the earth kissed your feet. I will cause all the people of Uruk to weep over you and raise the dirge of the dead. The joyful people will stoop with sorrow; and when you have gone to the earth I will let my hair grow long for your sake, I will wander through the wilderness in the skin of a lion.’ The next day also, in the first light, Gilgamesh lamented; seven days and seven nights he wept for Enkidu, until the worm fastened on him. Only then he gave him up to the earth, for the Anunnaki, the judges, had seized him. Then Gilgamesh issued a proclamation through the land, he summoned them all, the coppersmiths, the goldsmiths, the stone-workers, and commanded them, ‘Make a statue of my friend.’ The statue was fashioned with a great weight of lapis lazuli for the breast and of gold for the body. A table of hard-wood was set out, and on it a bowl of carnelian filled with honey, and a bowl of lapis lazuli filled with butter. These he exposed and offered to the Sun; and weeping he went away.

4 THE SEARCH FOR EVERLASTING LIFE BITTERLY Gilgamesh wept for his friend Enkidu; he wandered over the wilderness as a hunter, he roamed over the plains; in his bitterness he cried, ‘How can I rest, how can I be at peace? Despair is in my heart. What my brother is now, that shall I be when I am dead. Because I am afraid of death I will go as best I can to find Utnapishtim whom they call the Faraway, for he has entered the assembly of the gods.’ So Gilgamesh travelled over the wilderness, he wandered over the grasslands, a long journey, in search of Utnapishtim, whom the gods took after the deluge; and they set him to live in the land of Dilmun, in the garden of the sun; and to him alone of men they gave everlasting life. At night when he came to the mountain passes Gilgamesh prayed: ‘In these mountain passes long ago I saw lions, I was afraid and I lifted my eyes to the moon; I prayed and my prayers went up to the gods, so now, O moon god Sin, protect me.’ When he had prayed he lay down to sleep, until he was woken from out of a dream. He saw the lions round him, glorying in life; then he took his axe in his hand, he drew his sword from his belt, and he fell upon them like an arrow from the string, and struck and destroyed and scattered them. So at length Gilgamesh came to Mashu, the great mountains about which he had heard many things, which guard the rising and the setting sun. Its twin peaks are as high as the wall of heaven and its paps reach down to the underworld. At its gate the Scorpions stand guard, half man and half dragon; their glory is terrifying, their stare strikes death into men, their shimmering halo sweeps the mountains that guard the rising sun. When Gilgamesh saw them he shielded his eyes for the length of a moment only; then he took courage and approached. When they saw him so undismayed the Man-Scorpion called to his mate, ‘This one who comes to us now is flesh of the gods.’ The mate of the Man-Scorpion answered, ‘Two thirds is god but one third is man.’ Then he called to the man Gilgamesh, he called to the child of the gods: ‘ Why have you come so great a journey; for what have you travelled so far, crossing the dangerous waters; tell me the reason for your coming?’ Gilgamesh answered, ‘For Enkidu; I loved him dearly, together we endured all kinds of hardships; on his account I have come, for the common lot of man has taken him. I have wept for him day and night, I would not give up his body for burial, I thought my friend would come back because of my weeping. Since he went, my life is nothing; that is why I have travelled here in search of Utnapishtim, my father; for men say he has entered the assembly of the gods, and has found everlasting life: I have a desire to question him, concerning the living and the dead.’ The Man-Scorpion opened his mouth and said, speaking to Gilgamesh, ‘No man born of woman has done what you have asked, no mortal man has gone into the mountain; the length of it is twelve leagues of darkness; in it there is no light, but the heart is oppressed with darkness. From the rising of the sun to the setting of the sun there is no light. Gilgamesh said, ‘Although I should go in sorrow and in pain, with sighing and with weeping, still I must go. Open the gate I of the mountain:’ And the Man-Scorpion said, ‘Go, Gilgamesh, I permit you to pass through the mountain of Mashu and through the high ranges; may your feet carry you safely home. The gate of the mountain is open.’ When Gilgamesh heard this he did as the Man-Scorpion had said, he followed the sun’s road to his rising, through the mountain. When he had gone one league the darkness became thick around him, for there was no light, he could see nothing ahead and nothing behind him. After two leagues the darkness was thick and there was no light, he could see nothing ahead and nothing behind him. After three leagues the darkness was thick, and there was no light, he could see nothing ahead and nothing behind him. After four leagues the darkness was thick and there was no light, he could see nothing ahead and nothing behind him. At the end of five leagues the darkness was thick and there was no light, he could see nothing ahead and nothing behind him. At the end of six leagues the darkness was thick and there was no light, he could see nothing ahead and nothing behind him. When he had gone seven leagues the darkness was thick and there was no light, he could see nothing ahead and nothing behind him. When he had gene eight leagues Gilgamesh gave a great cry, for the darkness was thick and he could see nothing ahead and nothing behind him. After nine leagues he felt the north- wind on his face, but the darkness was thick and there was no light, he could see nothing ahead and nothing behind him. After ten leagues the end was near: After eleven leagues the dawn light appeared. At the end of twelve leagues the sun streamed out. There was the garden of the gods; all round him stood bushes bearing gems. Seeing it he went down at once, for there was fruit of carnelian with the vine hanging from it, beautiful to look at; lapis lazuli leaves hung thick with fruit, sweet to see. For thorns and thistles there were haematite and rare stones, agate, and pearls from out of the sea. While Gilgamesh walked in the garden by the edge of the sea Shamash saw him, and he saw that he was dressed in the skins of animals and ate their flesh. He was distressed, and he spoke and said, ‘No mortal man has gone this way before, nor will, as long as the winds drive over the sea.’ And to Gilgamesh he said, ‘You will never find the life for which you are searching.’ Gilgamesh said to glorious Shamash, ‘Now that i have toiled and strayed so far over the wilderness, am I to sleep, and let the earth cover my head for ever? Let my eyes see the sun until they are dazzled with looking. Although I am no better than a dead man, still let me see the light of the sun.’ Beside the sea she lives, the woman of the vine, the maker of wine; Siduri sits in the garden at the edge of the sea, with the golden bowl and the golden vats that the gods gave her. She is covered with a veil; and where she sits she sees Gilgamesh coming towards her, wearing skins, the flesh of the gods in his body, but despair in his heart, and his face like the face of one who has made a long journey. She looked, and as she scanned the distance she said in her own heart, ‘Surely this is some felon; where is he going now? And she barred her gate against him with the cross-bar and shot home the bolt. But Gilgamesh, hearing the sound of the bolt, threw up his head and lodged his foot in the gate; he called to her, ‘Young woman, maker of wine, why do you bolt your door; what did you see that made you bar your gate? I will break in your door and burst in your gate, for I am Gilgamesh who seized and killed the Bull of Heaven, I killed the watchman of the cedar forest, I overthrew Humbaba who lived in the forest, and I killed the lions in the passes of the mountain.’ Then Siduri said to him, ’If you are that Gilgamesh who seized and killed the Bull of Heaven, who killed the watchman of the cedar forest, who overthrew Humbaba that lived in the forest, and killed the lions in the passes of the mountain, why are your cheeks so starved and why is your face so drawn? Why is despair in your heart and your face like the face of one who has made a long journey? Yes, why is your face burned from heat and cold, and why do you come here wandering over the pastures in search of the wind? Gilgamesh answered her, ‘And why should not my cheeks be starved and my face drawn? Despair is in my heart and my face is the face of one who has made a long journey, it was burned with heat and with cold. Why should I not wander over the pastures in search of the wind? My friend, my younger brother, he who hunted the wild ass of the wilderness and the panther of the plains, nay friend, my younger brother who seized and killed the Bull of Heaven and overthrew Humbaba in the cedar forest, my friend who was very dear to me and who endured dangers beside me, Enkidu my brother, whom I loved, the end of mortality has overtaken him. I wept for him seven days and nights till the worm fastened on him. Because of my brother I am afraid of death, because of my brother I stray through the wilderness and cannot rest. But now, young woman, maker of wine, since I have seen your face do not let me see the face of death which I dread so much.’ She answered, ‘Gilgamesh, where are you hurrying to? You will never find that life for which you are looking. When the gods created man they allotted to him death, but life they retained in their own keeping. As for you, Gilgamesh, fill your belly with good things; day and night, night and day, dance and be merry, feast and rejoice. Let your clothes be fresh, bathe yourself in water, cherish the little child that holds your hand, and make your wife happy in your embrace; for this too is the lot of man.’ But Gilgamesh said to Siduri, the young woman, ‘How can I be silent, how can I rest, when Enkidu whom I love is dust, and I too shall die and be laid in the earth. You live by the sea-shore and look into the heart of it; young woman, tell me now, which is the way to Utnapishtim, the son of Ubara-Tutu? What directions are there for the passage; give me, oh, give me directions. I will cross the Ocean if it is possible; if it is not I will wander still farther in the wilderness.’ The wine- maker said to him, 'Gilgamesh, there is no crossing the Ocean; whoever has come, since the days of old, has not been able to pass that sea. The Sun in his glory crosses the Ocean, but who beside Shamash has ever crossed it? The place and the passage are difficult, and the waters of death are deep which flow between. Gilgamesh, how will you cross the Ocean? When you come to the waters of death what will you do? But Gilgamesh, down in the woods you will find Urshanabi, the ferryman of Utnapishtim; with him are the holy things, the things of stone. He is fashioning the serpent prow of the boat. Look at him well, and if it is possible, perhaps you will cross the waters with him; but if it is not possible, then you must go back.’ When Gilgamesh heard this he was seized with anger. He took his axe in his hand, and his dagger from his belt. He crept forward and he fell on them like a javelin. Then he went into the forest and sat down. Urshanabi saw the dagger flash and heard the axe, and he beat his head, for Gilgamesh had shattered the tackle of the boat in his rage. Urshanabi said to him, ‘Tell me, what is your name? I am Urshanabi, the ferryman of Utnapishtim the Faraway.” He replied to him, ‘Gilgamesh is my name, I am from Uruk, from the house of Anu.’ Then Urshanabi said to him, ‘Why are your cheeks so starved and your face drawn? Why is despair in your heart and your face like the face of one who has made a long journey; yes, why is your face burned with heat and with cold, and why do you come here wandering over the pastures in search of the wind? Gilgamesh said to him, ‘Why should not my cheeks be starved and my face drawn? Despair is in my heart, and my face is the face of one who has made a long journey. I was burned with heat and with cold. Why should I not wander over the pastures? My friend, my younger brother who seized and killed the Bull of Heaven, and overthrew Humbaba in the cedar forest, my friend who was very dear to me, and who endured dangers beside me, Enkidu my brother whom I loved, the end of mortality has overtaken him. I wept for him seven days and nights till the worm fastened on him. Because of my brother I am afraid of death, because of my brother I stray through the wilderness. His fate lies heavy upon me. How can I be silent, how can I rest? He is dust and I too shall die and be laid in the earth for ever. I am afraid of death, therefore, Urshanabi, tell me which is the road to Utnapishtim? If it is possible I will cross the waters of death; if not I will wander still farther through the wilderness.’ Urshanabi said to him, ‘Gilgamesh, your own hands have prevented you from crossing the Ocean; when you destroyed the tackle of the boat you destroyed its safety.’ Then the two of them talked it over and Gilgamesh said, ‘Why are you so angry with me, Urshanabi, for you yourself cross the sea by day and night, at all seasons you cross it’ ‘Gilgamesh, those things you destroyed, their property is to carry me over the water, to prevent the waters of death from touching me. It was for this reason that I preserved them, but you have destroyed them, and the urnu snakes with them. But now, go into the forest, Gilgamesh; with your axe cut poles, one hundred and twenty, cut them sixty cubits long, paint them with bitumen, set on them ferrules and bring them back.’ When Gilgamesh heard this he went into the forest, he cut poles one hundred and twenty; he cut them sixty cubits long, he painted them with bitumen, he set on them ferrules, and he brought them to Urshanabi. Then they boarded the boat, Gilgamesh and Urshanabi together, launching it out on the waves of the Ocean. For three days they ran on as it were a journey of a month and fifteen days, and at last Urshanabi brought the boat to the waters of death: Then Urshanabi said to Gilgamesh, ‘Press on, take a pole and thrust it in, but do not let your hands touch the waters. Gilgamesh, take a second pole, take a third, take a fourth pole. Now, Gilgamesh, take a fifth, take a sixth and seventh pole. Gilgamesh, take an eighth, and ninth, a tenth pole. Gilgamesh, take an eleventh, take a twelfth pole.’ After one hundred and twenty thrusts Gilgamesh had used the last pole. Then he stripped himself, he held up his arms for a mast and his covering for a sail. So Urshanabi the ferryman brought Gilgamesh to Utnapishtim, whom they call the Faraway, who lives in Dihnun at the place of the sun’s transit, eastward of the mountain. To him alone of men the gods had given everlasting life. Now Utnapishtim, where he lay at ease, looked into the distance and he said in his heart, musing to himself, ‘Why does the boat sail here without tackle and mast; why are the sacred stones destroyed, and why does the master not sail the boat? That man who comes is none of mine; where I look I see a man whose body is covered with skins of beasts. Who is this who walks up the shore behind Urshanabi, for surely he is no man of mine? So Utnapishtim looked at him and said, ‘What is your name, you who come here wearing the skins of beasts, with your cheeks starved and your face drawn? Where are you hurrying to now? For what reason have you made this great journey, crossing “the seas whose passage is difficult? Tell me the reason for your coming.’ He replied, ’Gilgamesh is my name. I am from Uruk, from the house of Anu.’ Then Utnapishtim said to him, ‘If you are Gilgamesh, why are your cheeks so starved and your face drawn? Why is despair in your heart and your face like the face of one who has made a long journey? Yes, why is your face burned with heat and cold; and why do you come here, wandering over the wilderness in search of the wind? Gilgamesh said to him, ‘Why should not my cheeks be starved and my face drawn? Despair is in my heart and my face is the face of one who has made a long journey. It was burned with heat and with cold. Why should I not wander over the pastures? My friend, my younger brother who seized and killed the Bull of Heaven and overthrew Humbaba in the cedar forest, my friend who was very dear to me and endured dangers beside me, Enkidu, my brother whom I loved, the end of mortality has overtaken him. I wept for him seven days and nights till the worm fastened on him. Because of my brother I am afraid of death; because of my brother I stray through the wilderness. His fate lies heavy upon me. How can I be silent, how can I rest? He is dust and I shall die also and be laid in the . earth for ever.’ Again Gilgamesh said, speaking to Utnapishtim, ‘It is to see Utnapishtim whom we call the Faraway that I have come on this journey. For. this I have wandered over the world, I have crossed many difficult ranges, I have crossed the seas, I have wearied myself with travelling; my joints are aching, and I have lost acquaintance with sleep which is sweet. My clothes were worn out before I came to the house of Siduri. I have killed the bear and hyena, the lion and panther, the tiger, the stag and the ibex, all sorts of wild game and the small creatures of the pastures. I ate their flesh and I wore their skins; and that was how I came to the gate of the young woman, the maker of wine, who barred her gate of pitch and bitumen against me. But from her I had news of the journey; so then I came to Urshanabi the ferryman, and with him I crossed over the waters of death. Oh, father Utnapishtim, you who have entered the assembly of the gods, I wish to question you concerning the living and the dead, how shall I find the life for which I am searching? Utnapishtim said, ‘There is no permanence. Do we build a house to stand for ever, do we seal a contract to hold for all time? Do brothers divide an inheritance to keep forever, does the flood-time of rivers endure? It is only the nymph of the dragon-fly who sheds her larva and sees the sun in his glory. From the days of old there is no permanence. The sleeping and the dead, how alike they are, they are like a painted death. What is there between the master and the servant when both have fulfilled their doom? When the Anunnaki, the judges, come together, and Mammetun the mother of destinies, together they decree the fates of men. Life and death they allot but the day of death they do not disclose.’

Then Gilgamesh said to Utnapishtim the Faraway, ‘I look at you now, Utnapishtim, and your appearance is no different from mine; there is nothing strange in your features. I thought I should find- you like a hero prepared for battle, but you are here taking your ease on your back. Tell me truly, how was it that you came to enter the company of the gods and to possess everlasting life?’ Utnapishtim said to Gilgamesh, ‘I will reveal to you a mystery, I will tell you a secret of the gods.’

5

THE STORY OF THE FLOOD

‘You know the city Shurrupak, it stands on the banks of Euphrates? That city grew old and the gods that were in it were old. There was Anu,-lord of the firmament, their father, and warrior Enlil their counsellor, Ninurta the helper, and Ennugi watcher over canals; and with them also was Ea. In those days the world teemed, the people multiplied, the world bellowed like a wild bull, and the great god was aroused by the clamor. Enlil heard the clamor and he said to the gods in council, “The uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason of the babel.” So the gods agreed to exterminate mankind. Enlil did this, but Ea because of his oath warned me in a dream. He whispered their words to my house of reeds, “Reed-house, reed-house! Wall, O wall, hearken reed-house, wall reflect; O man of Shurrupak, son of Ubara-Tutu; tear down your house and build a boat, abandon possessions and look for life, despise worldly goods and save your soul alive. Tear down your house, I say, and build a boat. These are the measurements of the barque as you shall build her: let hex beam equal her length, let her deck be roofed like the vault that covers the abyss; then take up into the boat the seed of all living creatures.”

‘When I had understood I said to my lord,

“Behold, what you have commanded I will honour and perform, but how shall I answer the people, the city, the elders?” Then Ea opened his mouth and said to me, his servant, “Tell them this: I have learnt that Enlil is wrathful against me, I dare no longer walk in his land nor live in his city; I will go down to the Gulf to dwell with Ea my lord. But on you he will rain down abundance, rare fish and shy wild-fowl, a rich harvest-tide. In the evening the rider of the storm will bring you wheat in torrents.”

‘In the first light of dawn all my household gathered round me, the children brought pitch and the men whatever was necessary. On the fifth day I laid the keel and the ribs, then I made fast the planking. The ground-space was one acre, each side of the deck measured one hundred and twenty cubits, making a square. I built six decks below, seven in all,

I divided them into nine sections with bulkheads between. I drove in wedges where needed, I saw to the punt poles, and laid in supplies. The carriers brought oil in baskets, I poured pitch into the furnace and asphalt and oil; more oil was consumed in caulking, and more again the master of the boat took into his stores. I slaughtered bullocks for the people and every day I killed sheep. I gave the shipwrights wine to drink as though it were river water, raw wine and red wine and oil and white wine. There was feasting then as -there is at the time of the New Year’s festival; I myself anointed my head. On the seventh day the boat was complete.

Then was the launching full of difficulty; there was shifting of ballast above and below till two thirds was submerged. I loaded into her all that I had of gold and of living things, my family, my kin, the beast of the field both wild and tame, and all the craftsmen. I sent them on board, for the time that Shamash had ordained was already fulfilled when he said, “in the evening, when the rider of the storm sends down the destroying rain, enter the boat and batten her down.” The time was fulfilled, the evening came, the rider of the storm sent down the rain. I looked out at the weather and it was terrible, so I too boarded the boat and battened her down. All was now complete, the battening and the caulking; so I handed the tiller to Puzur-Amurri the steersman, with the navigation and the care of the whole boat.

‘With the first light of dawn a black cloud came from the horizon; it thundered within where Adad, lord of the storm was riding. In front over hill and plain Shullat and Hanish, heralds of the storm, led on. Then the gods of the abyss rose up; Nergal pulled out the dams of the nether waters, Ninurta the war-lord threw down the dykes, and the seven judges of hell, the Annunaki, raised their torches, lighting the land with their livid flame. A stupor of despair went up to heaven when the god of the storm turned daylight to darkness, when he smashed the land like a cup. One whole day the tempest raged, gathering fury as .it went, it poured over the people like the tides of battle; a imam could not see his brother nor the people be seen from heaven. Even the gods were terrified at the flood, they fled to the highest heaven, the firmament of Ann; they crouched against the walls, cowering like curs. Then Ishtar the sweet-voiced Queen of Heaven cried out like a woman in travail: “Alas the days -of old are turned to dust because I commanded evil; why did I command thus evil in the council of all the gods? I commanded wars to destroy the people, but are they not my people, for I brought them forth? Now like the spawn of fish they float in the ocean.” The great gods of heaven and of hell wept, they covered their mouths.

‘For six days and six nights the winds blew, torrent and tempest and flood overwhelmed the world, tempest and flood raged together like warring hosts. When the seventh day dawned the storm from the south subsided, the sea grew calm, the, flood was stilled; I looked at the face of the world and there was silence, all mankind was turned to clay. The surface of the sea stretched as flat as a roof-top; I opened a hatch and the light fell on my face. Then I bowed low, I sat down and I wept, the tears streamed down my face, for on every side was the waste of water. I looked for land in vain, but fourteen leagues distant there appeared a mountain, and there the boat grounded; on the mountain of Nisir the boat held fast, she held fast and did not budge. One day she held, and -a second day on the mountain of Nisir she held fast and did not budge. A third day, and a fourth day she held fast on the mountain and did not budge; a fifth day and a sixth day she held fast on the mountain. When the seventh day dawned I loosed a dove and let her go. She flew away, but finding no resting-place she returned. Then I loosed a swallow, and she flew away but finding no resting-place she returned. I loosed a raven, she saw that the waters had retreated, she ate, she flew around, she cawed, and she did not come back. Then I threw everything open to the four winds, I made a sacrifice and poured out a libation on the mountain top. Seven and again seven cauldrons I set up on their stands, I heaped up wood and cane and cedar and myrtle. When the gods smelled the sweet savour, they gathered like flies over the sacrifice. Then, at last, Ishtar also came, she lifted her necklace with the jewels of heaven that once Anu had made to please her. “O you gods here present, by the lapis lazuli round my neck I shall remember these days as I remember the jewels of my throat; these last days I shall not forget. Let all the gods gather round the sacrifice, except Enlil. He shall not approach this offering, for without reflection he brought the flood; he consigned my people to destruction.”

‘When Enlil had come, when he saw the boat, he was wrath and swelled with anger at the gods, the host of heaven, “Has any of these mortals escaped? Not one was to have survived the destruction.” Then the god of the wells and canals Ninurta opened his mouth and said to the warrior Enlil, “Who is there of the gods that can devise without Ea? It is Ea alone who knows all things.” Then Ea opened his mouth and spoke to warrior Enlil, “Wisest of gods, hero Enlil, how could you so senselessly bring down the flood?

Lay upon the sinner his sin,

Lay upon the transgressor his transgression,

Punish him a little when he breaks loose,

Do not drive him too hard or he perishes,

Would that a lion had ravaged mankind Rather than the f loud,

Would that a wolf had ravaged mankind Rather than the flood,

Would that famine had wasted the world Rather than the flood,

Would that pestilence had wasted mankind Rather than the flood.

It was not I that revealed the secret of the gods; the wise man learned it in a dream. Now take your counselwhat shall be done with him.” ‘Then Enlil went up into the boat, he took me by the hand and my wife and made us enter the boat and kneel down on either side, he standing between us. He touched our foreheads to bless us saying, “In time past Utnapishtim was a mortal man; henceforth he and his wife shall live in the distance at the mouth of the rivers.” Thus it was that the gods took me and placed me here to live in the distance, at the mouth of the rivers.’

6 THE RETURN UTNAPISHTIM said, ‘As for you, Gilgamesh, who will assemble the gods for your sake, so that you may find that life for which you are searching? But if you wish, come and put into the test: only prevail against sleep for six days and seven nights.’ But while Gilgamesh sat there resting on his haunches, a mist of sleep like soft wool teased from the fleece drifted over him, and Utnapishtim said to his wife, ‘Look at him now, the strong man who would have everlasting life, even now the mists of sleep are drifting over him.’ His wife replied, ‘Touch the man to wake him, so that he may return to his own land in peace, going back through the gate by which he came.’ Utnapishtim said to his wife, ‘All men are deceivers, even you he will attempt to deceive; therefore bake loaves of bread, each day one loaf, and put it beside his head; and make a mark on the wall to number the days he has slept.’ So she baked loaves of bread, each day one loaf, and put it beside his head, and she marked on the wall the days that he slept; and there came a day when the first loaf was hard, the second loaf was like leather, the third was soggy, the crust of the fourth had mould, the fifth was mildewed, the sixth was fresh, and the seventh was still on the embers. Then Utnapishtim touched him and he woke. Gilgamesh said to Utnapishtim the Faraway, T hardly slept when you touched and roused me.’ But Utnapishtim said, ‘Count these loaves and leam how many days you slept, for your first is hard, your second like leather, your third is soggy, the crust of your fourth has mould, your fifth is mildewed, your sixth is fresh and your seventh was still over the glowing embers when I touched and woke you.’ Gilgamesh said, ‘What shall I do, O Utnapishtim, where shall I go? Already the thief in the night has hold of my limbs, death inhabits my room; wherever my foot rests, there I find death.’ Then Utnapishtim spoke to Urshanabi the ferryman: ‘Woe to you Urshanabi, now and for ever more you have become hateful to this harbourage; it is not for you, nor for you are the crossings of this sea. Go now, banished from the shore. But this man before whom you walked, bringing him here, whose body is covered with foulness and the grace of whose limbs has been spoiled by wild skins, take him to the washing-place. There he shall wash his long hair clean as snow in the water, he shall throw off his skins and let the sea carry them away, and the beauty of his body shall be shown, the fillet on his forehead shall be renewed, and he shall be given clothes to cover his nakedness. Till he reaches his own city and his journey is accomplished, these clothes will show no sign of age, they will wear like a new garment.’ So Urshanabi took Gilgamesh and led him to the washing-place, he washed his long hair as clean as snow in the water, he threw off his skins, which the sea carried away, and showed the beauty of his body. He renewed the fillet on his forehead, and to cover his nakedness gave him clothes which would show no sign of age, but would wear like a new garment till he reached his own city, and his journey was accomplished. Then Gilgamesh and Urshanabi launched the boat on to the water and boarded it, and they made ready to sail away; but the wife of Utnapishtim the Faraway said to him, 'Gilgamesh came here wearied out, he is worn out; what will you give him to carry him back to his own country? So Utnapishtim spoke, and Gilgamesh took a pole and brought the boat into the bank. 'Gilgamesh, you came here a man wearied out, you have worn yourself out; what shall I give you to carry you back to your own country? Gilgamesh, I shall reveal a secret thing, it is a mystery of the gods that I am telling you. There is a plant that grows under the water, it has a prickle like a thorn, like a rose; it will wound your hands, but if you succeed in taking it, then your hands will hold that which restores his lost youth to a man: When Gilgamesh heard this he opened the sluices so that a sweet water current might carry him out to the deepest channel; he tied heavy stones to his feet and they dragged him down to the water-bed. There he saw the plant growing;; although it pricked him he took it in his hands; then he cut the heavy stones from his feet, and the sea carried him and threw him on to the shore. Gilgamesh said to Urshanabi the ferryman, 'Come here, and see this marvellous plant. By its virtue a man may win back all his former strength. I will take it to Uruk of the strong walls; there I will give it to the old men to eat. Its name shall be “The Old Men Are Young Again”; and at last I shall eat it myself and have back all my lost youth.’ So Gilgamesh returned by the gate through which he had come, Gilgamesh and Urshanabi went together. They travelled their twenty leagues and then they broke their fast; after thirty leagues they stopped for the night. Gilgamesh saw a well of cool water and he went down and bathed; but deep in the pool there was lying a serpent, and the serpent sensed the sweetness of the flower. It rose out of the water and snatched it away, and immediately it sloughed its skin and returned to the well. Then Gilgamesh sat down and wept, the tears ran down his face, and he took the hand of Urshanabi; ‘O Urshanabi, was it for this that I toiled with my hands, is it for this I have wrung out my heart’s blood? For myself I have gained nothing; not I, but the beast of the earth has joy of it now. Already the stream has carried it twenty leagues back to the channels where I found it. I found a sign and now I have lost it. Let us leave the boat on the bank and go.’ After twenty leagues they broke their fast, after thirty leagues they stopped for the night; in three days they had walked as much as a journey of a month and fifteen days. When the journey was accomplished they arrived at Umk, the strong-walled city. Gilgamesh spoke to him, to Urshanabi the ferryman, ‘Urshanabi, climb up on to the wall of Umk, inspect its foundation terrace, and examine well the brickwork; see if it is not of burnt bricks; and did not the seven wise men lay these foundations? One third of the whole is city, one third is garden, and one third is field, with the precinct of the goddess Ishtar. These parts and the precinct are all Umk’ This too was the work of Gilgamesh, the king, who knew the countries of the world. He was wise,, he saw mysteries and knew secret things, he brought us a tale of the days before the flood. He went a long journey, was weary, worn out with labour, and returning engraved on a stone the whole story.

It's about to hit us here in Oklahoma and the rest of the southern states that are not used to this level of cold.

Please take this seriously if you live somewhere this is going to impact significantly.

I just sincerely hope texas' power grid doesn't fail them again.

but at least a small blessing is that this isn't bringing much precipitation with it and the worst of it will be the wind.

If you are in this swath of area and have never experienced this type of cold before please take whatever precautions you can. in extreme circumstances like this the best way to do that is to isolate activity to one or 2 rooms of the house that have as few outward facing windows as possible, make sure you wear lots of layers and even insulate those layers by putting wadded up paper between them, keep your extremities covered, keep your face covered, if you have blankets or pillows to spare and non-carpet flooring lay those out to help insulate the room, you can hang bath towels in front of any windows to help absorb the cold. Please limit going out to as little as possible, and if you have to make sure anything that can be covered is indeed covered, if you have to wear denim please layer something underneath it, wear ur heaviest fabrics, double up on socks and gloves if you need to, if you can get thermal underwear you can always layer those. When in highschool and had to wait at the buss I would often microwave some potatoes or perogis and keep them in my pockets to warm my hands as I waited for the bus. Keep extra blankets and candles and clothes in ur car. For whatever reason if you get wet and you're outside, please find somewhere to get inside while you dry. If you live in an area that's getting this and you don't have winter clothes like scarves or mitts take whatever thick insulating cloth you can find and use that instead. it might not be comfortable but it will be better than frostbite, I promise.

The different knives used by gauchos,and some interesting coincidences and a common root between puñales and Bowie knives.

by Abel A. Domenech | Ethnographic Arms & Armour

We generically term the different  types of edged weapons used by gauchos in the past as cuchillos criollos (creole knives). We employ this generic name as the gauchos didn’t use just one class of knife, but would employ different ones depending upon their personal tastes, customs, or what they could find or acquire.

About the Gauchos

The gaucho was a specific  human type: a free man, always changing of settlement, with no personal land, few personal belongings and no boundaries. An excellent rider, hunter of wild cattle, with no employer and no fixed job, he preferred to be an errant rider crossing the  silent and deserted big plains. Gauchos appeared as a result of the crossing of the blood of the Spanish with the local Indians and it is generally believed that the gaucho first appeared in those territories of what today is the Republica de Uruguay, on the North bank of River Plate opposite from where  Buenos Aires is situated. Gauchos quickly spread across the River into territories of what today is known as Argentina. All those territories were then known as Virreynato del Rio de la Plata and were under the control of the Crown of Spain. There was no division into the present countries of Argentina and Uruguay in those remote times (XVII to beginnings of XIX centuries). Both the gauchos of Uruguay and of Argentina have very similar characteristics in customs and clothing. A somewhat different  type of gaucho also developed later in the southern region of what today is Brazil, in the Rio Grande do Sul zone. What we can call a ‘gaucho type’ went under several different names during the XVII century, being called changadores, arrimados, amiluchos, gauderios, etc. before being called gauchos for the first time, probably by the end of the  XVIII century.

In those early times, these gauchos of the River Plate area had encounters with gangs coming from neighboring territories in dispute with Spain and under control of the Portuguese Crown (presently the southern territories of  Brazil), who crossed the frontiers while smuggling, committing robberies, etc. Of course, those encounters were very far from being friendly ones! The gangs of tough Portuguese speaking men were astonished to see the long bladed knives used by the Spanish speaking gauchos, which were too short to be called swords and too long to be called simply as knives. Therefore, they called them “big knife;” “knife” in Portuguese is faca, and the noun for “big knife” is facao, which is pronounced approximately as facáun. When Spanish speaking gauchos heard that funny way of calling their big knives, they liked it, and adopted the phonetic in Spanish language, as facón.

It has to be explained that the first Spaniards’ settlements around the coasts of the River Plate were made around the 1530s and subsequent to their initial failure, many of the few horses and cows brought from Spain gained liberty and escaped to the great open plains which offered these animals ideal conditions of grass, water and mild weather. These initial small herds gave rise with the passing of the following 150 years to the huge herds of thousands and thousands of cimarron (wild) cattle (both horses and cows) which astonished the voyagers who arrived in these lands in the following centuries after the first foundations of Buenos Aires.

These huge herds gave origin to a large local industry based upon the chasing and hunting of wild cattle just to take their hides for export to Spain, which required the special permission of the Cabildo Institution, which represented the King of Spain in our lands. These expeditions required many men working as hunters, killers and skinners and also soldiers to protect against Indian attack. Of course, many entrepreneurs found that more profitable business could be made organizing their own non authorized expeditions to get the cattle and smuggle the hides to other markets in Europe.

Gauchos were men of the frontier and recognized no Law, no King, no Patron and they committed robberies and other felonies and, as such, were pursued by the Law. Their services as knowledgeable men of the plains were required from time to time by owners of big rodeos of cattle or by the chiefs of the expeditions organized by the Cabildo to hunt wild cows and get their skins. This helped to put an end to the pursuit by the Law, at least during the course of those authorized expeditions. But then, they also hunted wild cattle for themselves, without the required Cabildo permission, and smuggled the skins for their own profit or were employed by the organizers of the non authorized expeditions. Later, in several stages of our history, they were forced to form part of the regular Army and, badly armed and badly equipped, were employed in the Independence and Civil wars and during the war against the Indians, under orders of military brass, politicos or civilian leaders.

These human types known as camiluchos, gauderios and those other names given before that of gauchos  all had similar characteristic behaviors, remaining in constant change, adaptation and modification of their clothes, tools, and riding apparel according to times and personal possibilities. Everything was capable of being used, changed, adapted, modified to their personal tastes or customs. That’s why it’s so difficult  to classify the edged weapons they employed and also their other pieces of tackle and riding equipment. To study an object it is first necessary to arrive at a classification method and to then use a more or less methodic description to allow observation and classification of a particular specimen as such or such variant. We should always have in our minds, though, what we said before regarding the personality of gauchos and their ability to adapt or modify their equipment, including riding tackle and weapons. This is especially important with their knives, because we will always find pieces which fail to fit exactly within the characteristics we hereby show, or to fit well into any of the types named here, though it should be possible to classify most into one of the four basic types we propose.

Real gauchos disappeared  by around the 1880/1890s with the arrival of wire fences, the  telegraph and the railroad. They adapted, becoming employees under the directions of the owners of estancias, or otherwise they just vanished. Today, the  public image of the gaucho is very different from its  true former sense; a new, positive image has replaced the bad one the gaucho had in centuries past. The gaucho is now an icon who represents Argentineans, in a similar sense as cowboys represent Americans. Far from his true origins, the gaucho is known today for his riding skills, his knowledge of cattle and the secrets of countryside work, his personal valor and his generosity; everything forming an image coined by a romantic sense imparted by literature and with the forgiveness of the  passage of time.

The Gaucho´s Arms and Tools

Gauchos were simple poor people; skilled riders and handlers of cattle, they had and required very little equipment. Among the gaucho’s tools and weapons were the lazo (lariat) and bolas (a throwing weapon inherited from the Indians). The hobbles were another humble, but important, tool which, used to tie together the front legs of the gaucho’s horse, prevented the loss of the horse out in the middle of the great lonely plains. A gaucho without horse, in the middle of those great plains, was a dead man. Then, of course, there was the knife, an edged weapon and a multipurpose tool used almost at any time during the gaucho’s day. Gauchos had limited access to firearms, which in our territories were reserved to the high or military classes almost exclusively. For this same reason, gauchos seemed to look upon firearms with disdain and little confidence, preferring edged weapons over all other types.

Several types of knives were used by gauchos in the past. They received different names depending on shape, general design and local customs. It is worth noting that, being persons of little literacy, gauchos called their knives by different names, paying little attention to their true characteristics but using the names they would have heard from their elders. Thus, a knife was a facón for one person, but the same knife may have been called a daga by another. It is also worth noting that the features which must be present in a specific specimen in order to classify it as a particular type are subject to debate, as there is no definite or rigid pattern or list of characteristics which exactly define each one. The present classification, which I propose in my books and writings, is that classification that I have used during the last 25 years and can be considered of rather “modern” usage, though based in the local customs and the most widely accepted morphology of each variant. Some authors accept these definitions as offered while others  propose some little changes. When considering gaucho knives, we must always bear in mind that their manufacture was more a result of improvisation in taking advantage of the available materials, than a true cutlery product, as with the English cutlery trade.

As a matter of fact, the local “cutlery industry” was very simple: Silversmiths took blades imported from Europe and provided rich handles and occasionally sheaths. Simple blacksmiths made entire simple knives with whichever metal was at hand. Old or broken swords, sabers or bayonets donated their blades to make facones or dagas.

Types of Gaucho Knives

Basically, we can establish four main types: facón, daga, cuchilla and puñal. The facón and daga  were fighting weapons while the cuchilla and the puñal were multipurpose tools, although the skill of gauchos in handling a long bladed knife for small or delicate cutting tasks would also have allowed them to use their long facones as a common knife if needed. Each of these knives have subtypes depending on subtle design differences, size or regional manufacture, however, such analysis is out of the scope of this article.

Photo 1. A group of puñales and verijeros. The difference in name relates to the length of the blade which, in turn, conditioned the place of carrying. Verijeros usually have a blade of 13 to 15 cm (around 7 to 8 inches), while puñales had blades of 10 to 14 inches length. The knives in this picture have handles and sheaths made of silver, some with decorations in gold.

The luxurious silver and gold embellished knives made their first appearances after the 1830/1840s, once the true local silversmith trade was established. In those early years, this type of costly knife was destined mainly for wealthy estancieros (ranch and land owners), high ranking military or rich politicos, and not for ordinary gauchos, who were usually very poor and the owners of very few personal belongings, as previously said. However, the taste for flashy silver ornamented knives, horse headstalls and saddles quickly spread among gauchos and Indians, defining their most prized possessions and serving as symbols of power and rank. So, while both of these human types were usually very, very poor they tried by all means (including trade and robbery) to get some silver into their belongings.

Common knives were handled with local woods, cow horns or antlers of small plains stags. Sometimes, these knives were adorned with coins or small pieces of silver. Later, nickel silver was also used, as well as low quality silver alloys. Curiously enough, despite their Spanish heritage, gauchos have never been fond of navajas or of any other type of folding blade  knife and always preferred fixed blade knives of good blade length.

Now, let’s see some characteristics of each type:

The facón is a thoroughbred fighting weapon. Its long blade, of 15 to 18 inches length, was usually made with a portion of broken sword, saber or bayonet though sometimes it was forged by frontier blacksmiths, usually from old worn tools, like files.

Facones  made with military style blades:

Photo 2. Three facones. The blades are single-edged with wide fullers; two types of crossguards are shown: small and “S” shaped.

Photo 3. Empatilladura. A reinforcement has been soldered to the handle-crossguard assembly to strengthen the union of hilt to blade. Generally present in long-bladed facones and dagas.

The blade of a typical facón is very long and slim, single-edged, and sometimes with a short double-edge near its point. The presence of a fuller is common in these long blades. Facones also feature a double guard, usually “S” shaped, though sometimes with the form of an inverted “U”, or a simple short crossguard. The guards were intended to protect the hand of the bearer during a fight, or to deflect an opponent’s thrust.

Two Facones and a Daga:

Photo 4. Top and middle: Facones. Note “U” and “S” shapes of crossguards. Bottom: a daga (dagger) with short guard and typical double-edged blade.

An interesting sub-type was the caronero which is a very long bladed facón or dagger (single or double-edged) - almost a true sword - carried between the caronas (a leather part of the gaucho saddle, thus its name). Caroneros do not usually have guards as they could get entangled with the saddle upon reaching for the weapon. Contrary to the popular belief, caroneros were not common or popular among gauchos. They were used by lawless gauchos, militia members or soldiers and only very occasionally by an ordinary gaucho.

Daggers:

Photo 5. Daggers. From top to bottom: 1) wooden handle with simple silver rings decoration and a double guard with the figures of flamingo heads and necks. 2) dagger. 3) interesting double-fullered blade, probably taken from an old sword. 4) blade with single central fuller and handle with typical fluted design, a decorative form known as galloneado. 5) dagger with “U” shaped crossguard, and  6) dagger, blade with central fuller.

The daga (dagger) is similar to the facón in shape, but the distinctive feature is that its long slim blade is double-edged.

Two Facones and a Dagger:

Photo 6. Top to bottom: 1) Facón. “U” shaped crossguard. Note the semi-circular throat of sheath to accommodate the curvature of the guard.  2) Facón with “S” shaped crossguard. 3) Dagger with a double-edged blade, probably hand forged from an old file. This knife (3) was probably made by Indian silversmith, considering the typically very simple and naive decoration motif.

The cuchilla is a utilitarian type of knife. Specifically, it is a big butcher’s knife with a curved edge and a straight back. It is interesting to note that in the Spanish language there exist both the words “cuchillo” (a masculine noun) and “cuchilla” (a feminine noun). Gauchos seemed to find the image of a “pregnant blade” in the curved edge or “belly” of the cuchilla, according to the legend surrounding the origin of the use of a feminine noun to name this type. The cuchilla is a knife of full tang construction, with wooden slabs attached to the tang by rivets and no bolsters. Cheap and easy to find everywhere, cuchillas are one of the most popular types of knife in use in the countryside in present times.

Cuchillas:

Photo 7. Group of Cuchillas. Essentially common butcher knives with full-tang construction, wooden slab grips and blades with a “belly” shaped edge contour and straight back.  The “pregnancy” or fullness of steel felt in the “belly” is reputed to have given the use of a feminine noun to name this type.

An interesting variant of this type is what I call cuchillo de campo (country knife), which was of later appearance, maybe during the end of the XIX century. The cuchillo de campo is also of full tang construction with a slab handle, attached by rivets, usually of wood or antler and a false bolster made of brass or nickel silver. The shape of the blade is slimmer and similar to that of the puñal.

Photo 8. Cuchillos de campo. Of more recent introduction, perhaps at the end of XIX century; these types are more popular for use in town. Interesting variations include examples of high quality construction, like the two specimens shown at bottom of the above photograph having white bone and stag handle slabs. More common specimens, like the top two, are handled with wooden slabs and have brass bolsters.

Photo 9. Detail of typical construction of cuchillos de campo. This type is closely related to cuchillas, being of full tang construction, with grip slabs attached with rivets and false bolsters made of brass or nickel silver. The blade shape is similar to that of puñales. Usually imported from Germany, but also from France and England.

Puñal

As a knife collector whose personal interests cover several different aspects of the fascinating world of knives, the similarities between two most interesting types of knives, Bowies and gaucho puñales, have never ceased to amaze me. Although the historic, economic and cultural milieu of North and South America followed different roads, the significance of these knives in our respective histories and cultures are of similarly great importance. In fact, the saga of the conquest of the frontier, the conflict with the Indian and the cattle industry are dominant factors in the development of both of the two Americas. Both knives suffered the early menace of restrictive laws trying to control their use. Both were principal and sometimes the only weapons for their owners. But also, they were multi-purpose tools in the hands of settlers, farmers, cowboys and gauchos. In both cases, knives were used with outstanding skill by our countrymen. There are also several features of South American knives whose exact meaning or actual use are not clear today; the same happens with certain characteristics of Bowie knives.

Of the several types of gaucho knives used in the past, I personally consider the most interesting type to study (especially for Bowie collectors) to be the variant known as the puñal, a knife which was widely used along the territories of what today is Argentina, as well as Uruguay and southern Brazil. This type features subtle distinctive differences of design in each of these regions. Several years ago I developed my own theory, tracing a common root in both the Bowie knife and the puñal. I don’t know if this theory would be widely accepted among our leading Bowie authorities in the USA and I can’t say if I’ll ever be able to fully demonstrate its complete truth, but in the meantime I humbly consider and present it to our readers as an approach to the study of these most interesting types of knives – Bowies and South American puñales – taking into account their broad use during a large historical period of our countries.

The use of the name puñal could be rather confusing for the historian, as the shape of this knife can not be related to the classical European poignard. Anyway, old European catalogs from the cutlery firms which supplied this kind of blade to the South American trade call them puñales or “daggers” in their literature. It is also interesting to point out that in local common day language – e.g. in a newspaper crime news – it is usually referred as a puñalada, for “stabbing.” So also is the verb used to name the act of receiving a wound with an edged weapon, no matter the actual shape or type of knife used in the stabbing. It is very common among Argentine military personnel to call any type of fighting or military knife puñal without paying attention to its actual shape or design. This may somewhat explain the wide use of the word puñal among common people, referring to any kind of knife.

Originally blades for puñales were forged in Germany, Belgium, France and England but the exact story of the origin of the puñal remains a mystery, as does who designed its distinctive blade shape and when it actually first appeared – perhaps in the XVIII century or earlier.

The Spanish influence upon these knives is evident as soon as you compare their shape with the Belduque, Albacete and Flandes knives brought by the Spaniards to our lands. On the other hand, there is a Germanic influence too, as there were several types of knives of German origin which used the same blade shape long before the gaucho knife.

The so-called “Mediterranean Dagger” (actually a single-edge knife) is a knife which was used in Spain, Italy and France during the XVII and XVIII centuries and it is commonly shown as a probable origin of the early Bowie knives and is also probably connected to certain Genovese and Corsican fixed blade knives. As a matter of fact, we know that Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas received a very strong French and Spanish influence in those days and some early Bowies elicit a strong reminiscence of the European dagger or knife. This can be easily seen for example, in the classic lines of the knife Searles made for Rezin Bowie.

Both South American puñales and early Bowies and Spanish Mediterranean daggers can be compared with large butcher knives and actually this was the way Bowie knives were described in early documents and newspaper accounts of knife fights.

Puñal Criollo:

Photo 10. Puñal. Blade length 27 cm (11 inches) with square bolster denoting Argentinean origin of this Boker/Arbolito German blade.

I’d like to call the attention of our readers to several main characteristics of gaucho puñales: the slim, elegant spear pointed blade, the presence of an integrally forged bolster or “button” (in Spanish, botón) which reinforces and divides the blade from its tang, the use of “cuts” or file marks on the back of the blade and the presence of some kind of “notch” in the ricasso of the blade.

Integrally Forged Bolster (Botón) and Form of the Tang:

Photo 11. Detail of a never-used puñal blade, with square bolster, prepared for use in the Argentine market. Commercial brand Libertad, imported from France by Anezin Hermanos, an importer of Buenos Aires. (circa first quarter of XX century)

Photo 12. Same blade, 27 cm length

These blades have a “rat tail” tang, which remains enclosed within the handle of the knife. The bolster (we call this integrally forged bolster botón, meaning “button”) which also appears in several early American Bowie knives and naval dirks as well as in European types, had a rounded shape in Uruguayan and Southern Brazilian knives, while in those used in the present day Argentine territories had distinctive square-shape sides. There is no known explanation regarding these differently shaped bolsters and their geographical distribution, except that the rounded bolster (“button”) seems to be of earlier appearance. Because of the use of a bolster, puñales never have any type of guard or crossguard.

Rounded “Buttons”:

Photo 13. Detail of circular bolsters or round “buttons” (botón Redondo or botón oriental). Left to right: 1) Brazilian knife. Blade marked with maker’s name and also Rio de Janeiro. Probably end of XVIII century. Made for the southern Brazil market. 2) Knife, probably made in Germany, for South American use (circa beginnings XIX century). No makers markings. 3) Probably German, circa beginnings XIX century. No maker’s markings. Notice round bolster feature and Spanish notch. 4) Knife of present day making by local silversmith Carlos Canali, following the style and patterns of old knives of the XIX century. The blade is an antique one, probably from the end of the XIX century or the beginning of the XX century, of Belgian origin with markings of a famous and now closed gun shop of Buenos Aires.

Photo 14. Same knives described above, full length and in sheaths.

Photo 15. Same knives described above, full length.

Typical Uruguayan and Brazilian “buttons” and sheaths provided with a “button keeper”:

Photo 16. Top: Puñal for Rio Grande (southern Brazil) market. Blade markings of the well known brand cocoteiro (palm tree), of Belgian origin. Below: Knife for the Uruguayan market. Blade of famous brand Sol (sun) and Broqua & Scholberg, of Belgian origin. Notice the Spanish notch on the ricasso (base) of each blade and also note the semicircular extension from the sheath mouth which covers and protects the blade’s bolster while the knife is inside the sheath, a feature usually associated with Brazilian and Uruguayan sheaths.

Photo 17. Same knives described above, shown full length.

Squared “Buttons”:

Photo 18. Four Argentine puñales, mounted in silver, showing their square bolsters or botón cuadrado (rectangular in overall cross section, but with facets replacing what would have been sharp edges, so actually octagonal). Notice also the semicircular notch on the ricasso, used to rest the index finger and prevent the hand from slipping towards the edge when stabbing.

Photo 19. Same knives of previous picture. Sheaths completely made of silver or leather with throat and tip of silver.

Trade Marks:

Photo 20. Detail of the blades of these same knives.

Regarding the use of the file marks on the back of blades of puñales there are several explanations; one such explanation assures that they were used as “cattle counters” (each mark counting as a bead in an “abacus”), another that they served as wire cutters and yet another that they were an edge-destroying device for the opponent’s blade edge during a fight. Although I feel that those marks could have been incidentally used as described, I personally believe that these were just cosmetic decorations, which were also present in Bowies, as well as in Spanish navajas (clasp folding knives). (By the way, in Spanish navajas we can usually find other “Bowie like” features: clip point blades and the widespread custom of decorating them with phrases and mottoes. Just a coincidence or the transfer of customs from the Spanish-French immigration to the Southern U.S. Territories of the XIX century?)

File marks:

Photo 21. Usual notches or file marks on top of the back of blade. Typical on most Argentinean puñales with each brand having their own pattern of marks. Popular beliefs attribute different uses to these file marks, but in my personal opinion, they were just decorations.

Much has been written regarding the true purpose of the so-called “Spanish notch.” As a matter of fact, on page 7 of ABKA Newsletter # 4 there is an interesting paragraph about Mr. Sterling Wortham’s tracing of an old “Toledo” marked Spanish scissors and a discussion about the possible use of its “notches” when working with twine. Another interesting discussion on this issue was written by the late noted collector and writer Mr. William Williamson on the occasion of the publishing of a special work for the famous Exhibition of La Commission des Avoyelles (Bowie Knives/Origin & Development, October 1979 - pages 24 & 25). The two Spanish daggers shown on page 25 of that work show several features usually associated with gaucho puñales, including round bolsters and half-moon cuts on the ricasso, confirming the common roots of Bowies and gaucho knives. I have often asked myself if we can really link the purpose of those notches with the menacing rompe puntas (point breakers) of those Spanish left hand (main gauche) daggers used in the past, as has often been suggested; I really doubt it. It is possible that its intended use was that of catching the opponent’s blade, but the shape of the notch present in some Bowies suggests another use to me. For example, the knife pictured in the book Bowie Knives by Robert Abels (The Ohio Hist. Scty, 1962), under number 3-K1A3c 10 ½, depicts a corresponding hole in the sheath. This feature suggests an intended use to secure the knife to its scabbard by means of a leather thong. The notch in a well known Samuel Bell knife could have accommodated some quick release retention device, like a small short chain with a ring secured to the belt.

Truly, it is a thrilling view that we get when we think about a duel occurring in those far gone days, during which the duelists try to break or catch the other’s knife blade. But I think that we have to remember that the fighting methods of our ancestors were more dictated by their natural instincts, survival desire and personal skill than by formally educated and learned esgrima technique, like that of the different European swordsmanship schools. Thus, it is my personal belief that the presence of the “Spanish notch” responds to a less romantic or thrilling reason: it was more a cosmetic touch of the artisan who made the piece, reminiscent maybe of those European knives he might have seen, than a feature intended to be used in parrying techniques.

 I also wish to point out that the ricasso of most puñales shows a “half-moon cut” whose use, it is generally accepted locally, was for the placement of the index finger when grasping the knife. This half-moon cut is especially useful when the owner intends to make a thrust with his knife, by preventing his hand from slipping onto the blade and cutting the fingers. Do our readers remember the story of Rezin cutting his fingers in the calf episode? The primitive knife Rezin was using on that occasion didn’t have a guard and when Rezin Bowie stabbed a calf to kill it, his hand slipped onto the blade edge producing a severe wound. It is said that this accident led to the use of a guard in the knives subsequently ordered by Rezin. Gauchos used to place their index finger in that cut whether using their knives as cutting tools or as weapons. The finger inside the “half-moon notch” prevented the forward movement of the hand towards the blade edge and it also allows better control of the knife. (The blade notch on a Samuel Bell knife pictured on page 25 of The Antique Bowie Knife Book shows exactly the same shape of the ones present in several gaucho puñales).

 As I said before, the blades for South American puñales came from Europe. Some of the most well regarded brands were “Arbolito” (Boker), “Defensa” (Weyesberg) and “Herder” from Germany; “Dufour” from France and “Joseph Rodgers & Sons” from England (By the way, we all know that Joseph Rodgers produced very high quality cutlery, including Bowies!!) The list of blade brands used in the making of gaucho puñales is very long and it is never complete. Local importers ordered blades from German cutlery firms and requested the stamping of special markings, usually in Spanish, and/or with prominent figures of related objects or animals well known in the South American region: a mate (small gourd or pumpkin used as a vessel to contain the typical local hot beverage sipped with a metallic straw), a running ostrich, a sheep, the sun, a hunter firing his gun, a bull, a stirrup, a tree, etc., etc… Generally, local consumers of knives of those bygone times were incapable of reading or writing, so they needed the logo on the blade to recognize their favorite brand.

Use of the Knife and the Gaucho Duel

Together with his horse, the knife, especially the facón or daga, was the distinctive tool/weapon of the gaucho, to the point of not himself existing without them. Gauchos were famous for the skillful use of knives and the use and abuse made of edged weapons during their duels. To understand this, we should bear in mind their background and epoch: these were solitary men. Very tough men raised in total solitude, almost without parental guidance. With no education, almost no religion, they spent their lives in the middle of the large plains in constant touch with nature, the danger of wild animals and Indians, the constant peril. They often spent long periods of time in solitude without seeing another human being and their only source of distraction or satisfying their very few extra needs was to reach one of the hundreds of pulperias distributed along the frontier. Pulperias were a special kind of country store, poorly built with adobe walls and a thatched roof. The owner of the pulperia provided the few gaucho needs: tobacco and paper for making cigarettes, yerba to prepare the national infusion called mate and some pieces of clothing, among a very few other things. Gauchos paid with silver coins obtained in their part time jobs or by smuggling or earned by playing cards, or simply paid for those goods with exchange of cow hides, ostrich plumes and other products of animals they had hunted. Pulperias also provided the unique possibility of social distractions, joining other gauchos to drink, to play cards and to talk, or just to play guitar and dance. They also provided the unique opportunity of seeing a woman for the first time in several months and the oldest profession in the world was one of the main attractions of those places. Gauchos liked drinking and high alcohol content beverages were their favorite ones. Now, the meeting in the same small place of several tough men, heavy drinking and very few and rarely seen women was a very explosive formula indeed!

Any gesture, under this delicate atmosphere, could ignite a dispute and give rise to a duel. A contradiction during conversation, the misunderstood use of a word, an erroneous comment about a woman present in the pulperia, or just about anything pronounced after having finished a couple of bottles of alcohol could be the invitation to prove who was better with the knife, or who was more rude or brave. Sometimes, a person had the reputation of being the best knife of the region, and this was reason enough for to provoke the challenge of another gaucho. Once the duel was inevitable, the men went outside the building to prove themselves, knife in one hand and their poncho rolled on the other arm to protect the body as a shield, a technique inherited from the Spaniards, who used their capes in the same way.

The intention was far from killing the opponent. They just wanted to mark the other, especially on the face. That mark would tell to everybody and forever that the bearer of the scar had lost a duel. But sometimes in the heat of the moment, the excess of alcohol and the rage generated in the fight ended in a fatal wound. One of the gauchos died and this was considered an accident, a disgrace, an unwanted death. The killer was seen with sympathy and was often helped by the onlookers, who considered him as a man in disgrace who was in need of protection and help in escaping from the Law. He often fled to the plains, sometimes getting a home for some time in the nearby Indian villages where he waited till his crime was forgotten or authorities changed. Or, he took this as an opportunity to travel to a far town. Only those gauchos who were known deliberate killers were seen with little sympathy and persecuted by the Law with more care. These were called gauchos matreros, always changing of place, always persecuted.

Another brutal practice of the time was mercy killing to end the pain of a suffering friend or familiar who had a disease or a severe injury producing great suffering, far from the possibility of a doctor’s help or medicines. To put an end to their misery was known as to make the Holy work, that is, to kill the suffering person with a quick pass of the knife through the throat, something which was seen with permissive eyes by common people. This is something which has to be understood within the ethic, moral, social and cultural background of the epoch.

We should bear in mind what a foreign traveler – surprised to know the intensive use of knives by gauchos – said: “Gauchos use their knives the same, to open a cow or to close a discussion.” Estadist, writer and former Argentine President Domingo F. Sarmiento wrote in his book Facundo published during the XIX century: “The gaucho is armed with the knife he inherited from the Spaniards & more than a weapon, the knife is an instrument which serves him in all his tasks; he can’t live without his knife; it is like the elephant trunk, his arm, his hand, his finger, his everything.”

The common contemporary vision suggests that gauchos passed half of their lives riding horses, hunting wild cattle just to take their hides and eat their tongues and a little of the meat, and the other half fighting duels. This is due to the old tales and descriptions written by foreign and local travelers visiting the pampas during the XIX century and giving details of the duels they have witnessed and the horrible scars on the faces of the gauchos they have met. The truth is that some gauchos had dueled sometimes, but not so often as we usually think. Knives were indeed used heavily, but mostly as tools, throughout the gaucho’s long days in the prairie, in hundreds of small and large tasks. The knife was an essential extension of their hands: the single utensil required for eating, both as cutting implement and fork; necessary in the task of cutting small wood for making the cooking fire; necessary in cutting strands of tobacco; necessary for slaughter and skinning of cattle and cutting their meat as well as in cutting hay to make the roofs of their poor houses and making adobe bricks for the walls; necessary in cutting hides to make or repair their saddles, headstalls, reins, and lariats – leather was used in hundreds of things. I feel and always try to put emphasis in the fact that knives were tools, often the only tool gauchos had, and that they used them as such and just on occasion in a fight with another gaucho. This in spite of the popular image of dueling gauchos, driven by literature and the common conception of present-day people.

Ways of carrying a knife

The appearance of the metallic cartridge and the perfection of repeating guns marked the beginning of the decline of the use of Bowies. It is interesting to note that while in the North American territory firearms rapidly took the place of these fascinating knives, the opposite happened in South America, where the knife kept its place as the main personal weapon until the first quarter of the present century. Customarily, gauchos carried their long bladed knives across their lower backs, crossed through their tirador (wide belt) and with the edge upwards. This enabled them to carry a very long blade easily, especially when riding a horse, and also to unsheathe it very quickly and ready to cut. In his books published during the XIX Century, English traveler and author Cunninghame Graham wrote that these knives crossed on the gauchos’ backs looked like the Latin sail of Mediterranean boats. (Note: tirador is the name of a heavy and wide leather belt, closed in the front with a distinctive and big silver buckle called rastra. The belt also carried important personal papers and money, like the cowboy “moneybelt”, and was usually decorated with silver or gold coins.) Smaller knives, with blades of not more than 13 or 15 cm and with metal or wooden handles, a smaller version of puñales, are usually carried on the front and are called verijeros. This name of verijero comes from the carry position, on the front near the right side of the belt buckle (rastra) and near the groins, a part of the body popularly known locally as verijas. Argentinians remain fond of owning a little verijero, silver handled, sometimes with silver sheath, and making it proudly shine at a Sunday barbecue (asado). Its 13 to 15 cm blade makes a very practical cutting tool indeed.

It is also interesting to remark that, while we won’t see a “Peacemaker” hanging on the belt of a present day working cowboy, you will surely find a knife (usually a short bladed puñal) crossed on the back or a small verijero on the front of almost all modern gauchos while working in the range today. Of course, present day countrymen ride both horses and modern pick-ups and to ride a truck with a knife crossed on the back is very uncomfortable, so the knife comes to be carried inside the glove box or under the cab seat. Also, to bear a large knife openly while walking in a town street is seen as politically incorrect by present customs. In some small countryside towns nobody cares if someone is wearing working clothes and is carrying a criollo knife on his belt. By the same token, and as previously said, all men working in the country wear a fixed blade knife of small proportions as a practical tool. I have often seen larger knives (puñales) still carried on the back in the usual tradition by country workers inside the boundaries of estancias and while riding their horses. Of course, facones and dagas are of little practical use for work and are today only seen in desfiles (parades) during festivities and celebrations, worn by typically costumed men.

In any case, knives remain very popular among Argentinians and in spite of the fact that very few know the true origins and meaning of gauchos, most still associate the word facón with their figure and personality. And creole knives continue to be a symbol of the past, closely related with those fierce, valiant, tough men, proud of their freedom, and remain also as symbol and reminder of more romantic, adventurous and dangerous times.

Abel A. Domenech, 2008  [email protected]

Bibliography

ABKA Newsletter # 4 - page 7

Bowie Knives/Origin & Development - by William Williamson - La Commission des Avoyelles/October 1979.

The Antique Bowie Knife Book - B. Adams/J.B. Voyles/T. Moss/ Museum Publications, 1990.

Sale of J. Rodgers Exhibition Knives - catalog by Jim Parker, 1988.

Dagas de Plata - Abel A. Domenech Buenos Aires, 2006.