Week 15: Punctuations…THERE ARE JUST SO MAAAAANYYYYY!!!!!!!!!!!
This topic took up an entire week (two meetings) to finish. But it didn’t get tedious because Mr. Aunario is as lively as a demo teacher gets.
Punctuations are used to create sense, clarity and stress in sentences. You use punctuation marks to structure and organize your writing.
The question mark [ ? ] (also known as interrogation point, query, or eroteme in journalism) is a punctuation mark that indicates an interrogative sentences.
Rule 1. Use a question mark only after a direct question.
Correct: Will you go with me?
Incorrect: I'm asking if you will go with me?
Rule 2. A question mark replaces a period at the end of a sentence.
Incorrect: Will you go with me?.
Rule 3a. Avoid the common trap of using question marks with indirect questions, which are statements that contain questions. Use a period after an indirect question.
Incorrect: I wonder if he would go with me?
Correct: I wonder if he would go with me.
Rule 3b. Some sentences are statements in the form of a question. They are called rhetorical questions because they don't require or expect an answer.
Why don't you take a break.
Would you kids knock it off.
What wouldn't I do for you!
Rule 4. Use a question mark when a sentence is half statement and half question.
Example: You do care, don't you?
Rule 5. The placement of question marks with quotation marks follows logic. If a question is within the quoted material, a question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.
She asked, "Will you still be my friend?"
The question is part of the quotation.
Do you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and war"?
The question is outside the quotation.
The exclamation mark (Commonwealth English) or exclamation point (American English) is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high volume (shouting), and often marks the end of a sentence.
Rule 1. Use an exclamation point to show emotion, emphasis, or surprise.
I'm truly shocked by your behavior!
Rule 2. An exclamation point replaces a period at the end of a sentence.
Incorrect: I'm truly shocked by your behavior!.
Rule 3. Do not use an exclamation point in formal business writing.
Rule 4. Overuse of exclamation points is a sign of undisciplined writing. Do not use even one of these marks unless you're convinced it is justified.
It's no accident that a semicolon is a period atop a comma. Like commas, semicolons indicate an audible pause—slightly longer than a comma's, but short of a period's full stop.
Rule 1. A semicolon can replace a period if the writer wishes to narrow the gap between two closely linked sentences.
Call me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then.
We have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges listed in the contract.
Rule 2. Use a semicolon before such words and terms as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., for instance, etc., when they introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after these words and terms.
Example: Bring any two items; however, sleeping bags and tents are in short supply.
Rule 3. Use a semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain commas.
Incorrect: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho, Springfield, California, Alamo, Tennessee, and other places as well.
Note that with only commas, that sentence is hopeless.
Correct: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho; Springfield, California; Alamo, Tennessee; and other places as well.
Rule 4. A semicolon may be used between independent clauses joined by a
connector, such as and, but, or, nor, etc., when one or more commas appear in
Example: When I finish here, and I will soon, I'll be glad to help you; and that is a
A colon means "that is to say" or "here's what I mean." Colons and semicolons should never be used interchangeably.
Rule 1. Use a colon to introduce a series of items. Do not capitalize the first item after the colon (unless it's a proper noun).
You may be required to bring many things: sleeping bags, pans, utensils, and warm clothing.
I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.
Rule 2. Avoid using a colon before a list when it directly follows a verb or preposition.
Incorrect: I want: butter, sugar, and flour.
Correct: I want the following: butter, sugar, and flour.
Incorrect: I've seen the greats, including: Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep.
Correct: I've seen the greats, including Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep.
Rule 3. When listing items one by one, one per line, following a colon, capitalization and ending punctuation are optional when using single words or phrases preceded by letters, numbers, or bullet points. If each point is a complete sentence, capitalize the
first word and end the sentence with appropriate ending punctuation. Otherwise, there are no hard and fast rules, except be consistent.
I want an assistant who can do the following:
The following are requested:
Wool sweaters for possible cold weather.
Wet suits for snorkeling.
Introductions to the local dignitaries.
These are the pool rules:
If you see unsafe behavior, report it to the lifeguard.
Did you remember your towel?
Rule 4. A colon instead of a semicolon may be used between independent clauses when the second sentence explains, illustrates, paraphrases, or expands on the first sentence.
Example: He got what he worked for: he really earned that promotion.
If a complete sentence follows a colon, as in the previous example, it is up to the writer to decide whether to capitalize the first word. Capitalizing a sentence after a colon is generally a judgment call; if what follows a colon is closely related to what precedes it, there is no need for a capital.
Example: He got what he worked for: a promotion.
Rule 5. A colon may be used to introduce a long quotation. Some style manuals say to indent one-half inch on both the left and right margins; others say to indent only on the left margin. Quotation marks are not used.
Example: The author of Touched, Jane Straus, wrote in the first chapter: Georgia went back to her bed and stared at the intricate patterns of burned moth wings in the translucent glass of the overhead light. Her father was in "hyper mode" again where nothing could calm him down.
It is used in writing to mark off an interjected explanatory or qualifying remark.
Rule 1. Use parentheses to enclose information that clarifies or is used as an aside.
Example: He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that he did not understand the question.
If material in parentheses ends a sentence, the period goes after the parentheses.
Example: He gave me a nice bonus ($500).
Rule 2a. Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the parentheses.
Example: Please read the analysis. (You'll be amazed.)
This is a rule with a lot of wiggle room. An entire sentence in parentheses is often acceptable without an enclosed period:
Example: Please read the analysis (you'll be amazed).
Rule 2b. Take care to punctuate correctly when punctuation is required both inside and outside parentheses.
Example: You are late (aren't you?).
Rule 3. Parentheses, despite appearances, are not part of the subject.
Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence:
Example: Joe (accompanied by his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
Rule 4. Commas are more likely to follow parentheses than precede them.
Incorrect: When he got home, (it was already dark outside) he fixed dinner.
Correct: When he got home (it was already dark outside), he fixed dinner.
Brackets are far less common than parentheses, and they are only used in special cases. Brackets (like single quotation marks) are used exclusively within quoted material.
Rule 1. Brackets are interruptions. When we see them, we know they've been added by someone else. They are used to explain or comment on the quotation.
Examples:
"Four score and seven [today we'd say eighty-seven] years ago..."
"Bill shook hands with [his son] Al."
Rule 2. When quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents material in a confusing way, insert the term sic in italics and enclose it in nonitalic (unless the surrounding text is italic) brackets.
Sic ("thus" in Latin) is shorthand for, "This is exactly what the original material says.“
Example: She wrote, "I would rather die then [sic] be seen wearing the same outfit as my sister."
The [sic] indicates that then was mistakenly used instead of than.
Rule 3. In formal writing, brackets are often used to maintain the integrity of both a quotation and the sentences others use it in.
Example: "[T]he better angels of our nature" gave a powerful ending to Lincoln's first inaugural address.
Lincoln's memorable phrase came midsentence, so the word the was not originally capitalized.
An ellipsis is a punctuation mark consisting of three dots. Use an ellipsis when omitting a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from a quoted passage. Ellipses save space or remove material that is less relevant. They are useful in getting right to the point without delay or distraction
Full quotation: "Today, after hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill."
With ellipsis: "Today…we vetoed the bill.”
Although ellipses are used in many ways, the three-dot method is the simplest.
Newspapers, magazines, and books of fiction and nonfiction use various approaches that they find suitable.
Example: I don't know…I'm not sure.
Others enclose the ellipsis with a space on each side.
Example: I don't know … I'm not sure.
Still others put a space either directly before or directly after the ellipsis.
I don't know …I'm not sure.
I don't know… I'm not sure.
Rule 1. Many writers use an ellipsis whether the omission occurs at the beginning of a sentence, in the middle of a sentence, or between sentences.
A common way to delete the beginning of a sentence is to follow the opening
quotation mark with an ellipsis, plus a bracketed capital letter
Example: "…[A]fter hours of careful thought,
Other writers omit the ellipsis in such cases, feeling the bracketed capital letter gets the point across.
Rule 2. Ellipses can express hesitation, changes of mood, suspense, or thoughts
trailing off. Writers also use ellipses to indicate a pause or wavering in an otherwise straightforward sentence.
I don't know…I'm not sure.
Pride is one thing, but what happens if she…?
He said, "I…really don't…understand this."
The en dash is used to indicate spans or differentiation, where it may be considered to replace "and" or “to”.
The en dash is used to represent a span or range of numbers, dates, or time. There should be no space between the en dash and the adjacent material. Depending on the context, the en dash is read as “to” or “through.”
The 2010–2011 season was our best yet.
You will find this material in chapters 8–12.
If you introduce a span or range with words such as from or between, do not use the en dash.
Correct: She served as secretary of state from 1996 to 1999.
Incorrect: She served as secretary of state from 1996–1999.
Correct: The regime’s most oppressive treatment occurred between 1965 and 1970.
Incorrect: The regime’s most oppressive treatment occurred between 1965–1970.
The en dash is used to report scores or results of contests.
The president’s nominee was confirmed by the Senate, which voted 62–38 along party lines.
UCLA beat USC 28–14 in the final game of the regular season.
The en dash can also be used between words to represent conflict, connection, or direction.
The liberal–conservative debate.
The Los Angeles–London flight.
There is a north–south railway in the same area as the highway that runs east–west.
When a compound adjective is formed with an element that is itself an open compound or hyphenated compound, some writers replace the customary hyphen with an en dash. This is an aesthetic choice more than anything. For more on the hyphenation of compound adjectives, see here.
Hyphen: She is an award-winning novelist.
En dash: She is a National Book Award–winning novelist.
Hyphen: It was just one of many changes in this post-Clinton era.
En dash: It was just one of many changes in this post–New Deal era.
Hyphen: They were a bunch of college-educated snobs.
En dash: They were a bunch of prep school–educated snobs.
Hyphen: He submitted his manuscript to a print-only publisher.
En dash: He submitted his manuscript to an e-book–only publisher.
The em dash is perhaps the most versatile punctuation mark. Depending on the context, the em dash can take the place of commas, parentheses, or colons—in each case to slightly different effect.
Notwithstanding its versatility, the em dash is best limited to two appearances per sentence. Otherwise, confusion rather than clarity is likely to result.
• Em dashes in place of commas
A pair of em dashes can be used in place of commas to enhance readability. Note, however, that dashes are always more emphatic than commas.
And yet, when the car was finally delivered—nearly three months after it was ordered—she decided she no longer wanted it, leaving the dealer with an oddly equipped car that would be difficult to sell.
• Em dashes in place of parentheses
A pair of em dashes can replace a pair of parentheses. Dashes are considered less formal than parentheses; they are also more intrusive. If you want to draw attention to the parenthetical content, use dashes. If you want to include the parenthetical content more subtly, use parentheses.
Upon discovering the errors (all 124 of them), the publisher immediately recalled the books.
Upon discovering the errors—all 124 of them—the publisher immediately recalled the books.
When used in place of parentheses at the end of a sentence, only a single dash is used.
After three weeks on set, the cast was fed up with his direction (or, rather, lack of direction).
After three weeks on set, the cast was fed up with his direction—or, rather, lack of direction.
• The em dash in place of a colon
The em dash can be used in place of a colon when you want to emphasize the conclusion of your sentence. The dash is less formal than the colon.
After months of deliberation, the jurors reached a unanimous verdict—guilty.
The white sand, the warm water, the sparkling sun—this is what brought them to Hawaii.
Two em dashes can be used to indicate missing portions of a word, whether unknown or intentionally omitted.
Mr. J—— testified that the defendant yelled, “Die, a——,” before pulling the trigger.
From the faded and water-damaged note, we made out only this: “Was ne——y going to m—— K——, but now ——t.”
When an entire word is missing, either two or three em dashes can be used. Whichever length you choose, use it consistently throughout your document. Surrounding punctuation should be placed as usual.
The juvenile defendant, ———, was arraigned yesterday.
The em dash is typically used without spaces on either side, and that is the style used in this guide. Most newspapers, however, set the em dash off with a single space on each side.
Most newspapers — and all that follow AP style — insert a space before and after the em dash.
There are two commandments about this misunderstood punctuation mark. First, hyphens must never be used interchangeably with dashes which are noticeably longer. Second, there should never be spaces around hyphens.
Incorrect: 300—325 people
Incorrect: 300 - 325 people
Hyphens' main purpose is to glue words together. They notify the reader that two or more elements in a sentence are linked. Although there are rules and customs governing hyphens, there are also situations when writers must decide whether to add them for clarity.
Rule 1. Generally, hyphenate two or more words when they come before a noun they modify and act as a single idea. This is called a compound adjective.
When a compound adjective follows a noun, a hyphen may or may not be necessary.
Example: The apartment is off campus.
However, some established compound adjectives are always hyphenated.
Example: The design is state-of-the-art.
Rule 2a. A hyphen is frequently required when forming original compound verbs for
vivid writing, humor, or special situations.
The slacker video-gamed his way through life.
Queen Victoria throne-sat for six decades.
Rule 2b. When writing out new, original, or unusual compound nouns, writers
should hyphenate whenever doing so avoids confusion.
I changed my diet and became a no-meater.
No-meater is too confusing without the hyphen.
Rule 3. An often overlooked rule for hyphens: The adverb very and adverbs ending in -ly are not hyphenated.
Incorrect: the very-elegant watch
Incorrect: the finely-tuned watch
This rule applies only to adverbs. The following two sentences are correct because the -ly words are adjectives rather than adverbs:
Correct: the friendly-looking dog
Correct: a family-owned cafe
Rule 4. Hyphens are often used to tell the ages of people and things. A handy rule, whether writing about years, months, or any other period of time, is to use hyphens unless the period of time (years, months, weeks, days) is written in plural form:
We have a two-year-old child.
No hyphens: The child is two years old. (Because years is plural.)
Exception: The child is one year old. (Or day, week, month, etc.)
Note that when hyphens are involved in expressing ages, two hyphens are required.
Incorrect: We have a two-year old child.
Without the second hyphen, the sentence is about an "old child."
Rule 5. Never hesitate to add a hyphen if it solves a possible problem. Following are two examples of well-advised hyphens:
I have a few more important things to do.
I have a few more-important things to do.
Without the hyphen, it's impossible to tell whether the sentence is about a few things that are more important or a few more things that are all equally important.
He returned the stolen vehicle report.
He returned the stolen-vehicle report.
With no hyphen, we could only guess: Was the vehicle report stolen, or was it a report on stolen vehicles?
Rule 6. When using numbers, hyphenate spans or estimates of time, distance, or other quantities. Remember not to use spaces around hyphens.
Rule 7. Hyphenate most double last names.
Example: Sir Winthrop Heinz-Eakins will attend.
Rule 8. Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.
one thousand two hundred twenty-one dollars
Rule 9. Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.
Example: more than two-thirds of registered voters
Rule 10. As important as hyphens are to clear writing, they can become an annoyance if overused. Avoid adding hyphens when the meaning is clear. Many phrases are so familiar (e.g., high school, twentieth century, one hundred percent) that they can go before a noun without risk of confusing the reader.
a twentieth century throwback
one hundred percent correct
Hyphens with Prefixes and Suffixes
A prefix (a-, un-, de-, ab-, sub-, post-, anti-, etc.) is a letter or set of letters placed before a root word. The word prefix itself contains the prefix pre-. Prefixes expand or change a word's meaning, sometimes radically: the prefixes a-, un-, and dis-, for
example, change words into their opposites (e.g., political, apolitical; friendly, unfriendly; honor, dishonor).
Rule 1. Hyphenate prefixes when they come before proper nouns or proper adjectives.
Rule 2. For clarity, many writers hyphenate prefixes ending in a vowel when the root word begins with the same letter.
Rule 3. Hyphenate all words beginning with the prefixes self-, ex- (i.e., former), and all-.
Rule 4. Use a hyphen with the prefix re- when omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with another word.
Will she recover from her illness?
I have re-covered the sofa twice.
Omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with recover.
I must re-press the shirt.
Omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with repress.
The stamps have been reissued.
A hyphen after re- is not needed because there is no confusion with another word.
Rule 5. Writers often hyphenate prefixes when they feel a word might be distracting or confusing without the hyphen.
With no hyphen we get deice, which might stump readers.
With no hyphen we get coworker, which could be distracting because it starts withcow.
· A suffix (-y, -er, -ism, -able, etc.) is a letter or set of letters that follows a root word. Suffixes form new words or alter the original word to perform a different task. For example, the noun scandal can be made into the adjective scandalous by adding the suffix -ous. It becomes the verb scandalize by adding the suffix -ize.
Rule 1. Suffixes are not usually hyphenated. Some exceptions: -style, -elect, -free, -
Modernist-style paintings
Rule 2. For clarity, writers often hyphenate when the last letter in the root word is the same as the first letter in the suffix.
Rule 3. Use discretion—and sometimes a dictionary—before deciding to place a
hyphen before a suffix. But do not hesitate to hyphenate a rare usage if it avoids
an eel-esque sea creature
Contractions (e.g., let’s, don’t, couldn’t, it’s, she’s) have a bad reputation. Many argue that they have no place at all in formal writing. You should, of course, observe your publisher’s or instructor’s requirements. An absolute avoidance of contractions, however, is likely to make your writing appear stilted and unwelcoming.
Example: It’s often said that every dog has its day.
The apostrophe is seldom used to form a plural noun.
Incorrect: Since the 1980’s, the Thomas’s, both of whom have multiple PhD’s, sell old book’s and magazine’s at the fair on Saturday’s and Sunday’s.
Correct: Since the 1980s, the Thomases, both of whom have multiple PhDs, sell old books and magazines at the fair on Saturdays and Sundays.
The rare exception to the rule is when certain abbreviations, letters, or words are used as nouns, as in the following examples. Unless the apostrophe is needed to avoid misreading or confusion, omit it.
He received four A’s and two B’s.
We hired three M.D.’s and two D.O.’s.
Be sure to cross your t’s and dot your i’s.
Do we have more yes’s than no’s?
The general rule is that the possessive of a singular noun is formed by adding an apostrophe and s, whether the singular noun ends in s or not.
The possessive of a plural noun is formed by adding only an apostrophe when the noun ends in s, and by adding both an apostrophe and s when it ends in a letter other than s.
the student teachers’ supervisor
the Smiths’ vacation house
Use only an apostrophe for places or names that are singular but have a final word in plural form and ending with an s.
Beverly Hills’ current mayor
the United States’ lingering debt problem
Nouns that end in an s sound take only an apostrophe when they are followed by sake.
A proper noun that is already in possessive form is left as is.
T.G.I. Friday’s menu was recently changed.
Joint possession is indicated by a single apostrophe.
Robert Smith and Rebecca Green’s psychology textbook. (they coauthored the book)
Stanley and Scarlett’s house. (they share the house)
Individual possession is indicated by apostrophes for each possessor.
France’s and Italy’s domestic policies are diverging.
Chris’s and John’s houses were designed by the same architect.
Avoid awkward possessives
Correct but awkward: St. Patrick’s Cathedral’s Fifth Avenue entrance.
Better: The Fifth Avenue entrance for St. Patrick’s Cathedral.
The apostrophe should never be separated from the word to which it attaches by adjacent punctuation.
Correct: The house on the left is the Smiths’, but the house at the end of the street is the Whites’.
Incorrect: The house on the left is the Smiths,’ but the house at the end of the street is the Whites.’
Commas customarily indicate a brief pause; they're not as final as periods.
Rule 1. Use commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or more. (You may or may not use a comma before “and”; however, be sure to use only one style consistently throughout the whole document.)
Example: My estate is to be split among my sister, daughter, son, and nephew.
My estate is to be split among my sister, daughter, son and nephew.
Rule 2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the word and can be inserted between them.
Examples: He is a strong, healthy man.
We stayed at an expensive summer resort.
Rule 3. Use a comma when an -ly adjective is used with other adjectives.
Examples: Felix was a lonely, young boy.
I get headaches in brightly lit rooms.
Rule 4. Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly addressed.
Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?
NOTE: Capitalize a title when directly addressing someone.
Rule 5a. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year.
Kathleen met her husband on December 5, 2003, in Mill Valley, California.
Rule 5b. If any part of the date is omitted, leave out the comma.
They met in December 2003 in Mill Valley.
Rule 6. Use a comma to separate the city from the state and after the state in a document. If you use the two-letter capitalized form of a state in a document, you do not need a comma after the state.
I lived in San Francisco, California, for 20 years.
I lived in San Francisco, CA for 20 years.
Rule 7. Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names. Commas are no longer required around Jr. and Sr. Commas never set off II, III, and so forth.
Al Mooney, M.D., knew Sam Sunny Jr. and Charles Starr III.
Rule 8. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt sentence flow.
I am, as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this.
Rule 9. When starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely, do not use a comma when the sentence starts with a strong clause followed by a weak clause.
If you are not sure about this, let me know now.
Let me know now if you are not sure about this.
Rule 10. Use a comma after phrases of more than three words that begin a sentence. If the phrase has fewer than three words, the comma is optional.
To apply for this job, you must have previous experience
On February 14 many couples give each other candy or flowers.
On February 14, many couples give each other candy or flowers.
Rule 11. If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description following it is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.
Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident.
Freddy is named, so the description is not essential.
The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.
We do not know which boy is being referred to without further description; therefore, no commas are used.
Rule 12. Use a comma to separate two strong clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction--and, or, but, for, nor. You can omit the comma if the clauses are both short.
I have painted the entire house, but he is still working on sanding the doors.
Rule 13. Use the comma to separate two sentences if it will help avoid confusion.
I chose the colors red and green, and blue was his first choice.
Rule 14. A comma splice is an error caused by joining two strong clauses with only a comma instead of separating the clauses with a conjunction, a semicolon, or a period. A run-on sentence, which is incorrect, is created by joining two strong clauses without any punctuation.
Incorrect: Time flies when we are having fun, we are always having fun. (Comma splice)
Time flies when we are having fun we are always having fun. (Run-on sentence)
Correct: Time flies when we are having fun; we are always having fun.
Time flies when we are having fun, and we are always having fun. (Comma is optional because both strong clauses are short.)
Time flies when we are having fun. We are always having fun.
Rule 15. If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, do not use a comma.
He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.
Rule 16. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations shorter than three lines.
He actually said, "I do not care."
"Why," I asked, "do you always forget to do it?"
Rule 17. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.
Rule 18. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.
That is my money, not yours.
Rule 19. Use a comma when beginning sentences with introductory words such as well, now, or yes.
Yes, I do need that report.
Well, I never thought I'd live to see the day…
Rule 20. Use commas surrounding words such as therefore and however when they are used as interrupters.
I would, therefore, like a response.
I would be happy, however, to volunteer for the Red Cross.
Rule 21. Use either a comma or a semicolon before introductory words such as namely, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they are followed by a series of items. Use a comma after the introductory word.
You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.
You may be required to bring many items; e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.
