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INTRODUCTION:

From Frantz Fanon to Robert Stam and Ella Shohat, all of these theorists present revelating works on race, sexuality, class and their implications in media throughout time, as well as their conscious and unconscious manifestations. 

Frantz Fanon in “The Negro and Psychopathology,” delves into the psychological impacts of colonialism and stereotyping on black individuals through harmful narratives. Fanon concludes that one must take agency over stereotyping and negative portrayals in order to escape the “neurosis” that comes along with societal norms and expectations. By subverting these arbitrary standards, black individuals will overcome generational oppression. 

bell hooks in her work “Oppositional Gaze: Black Female Spectators,” highlights the unique intersectionality of black women that makes them susceptible to multiple forms of oppression through portrayal in the media. She argues that black women are subjected to harmful stereotypes that deny them freedom of expression in popular forms of media. She also introduces the term “oppositional gaze” which refers to the type of spectatorship black women take on when viewing media to subvert expectations and give agency back to these women. It allows black women to critique media in a way that dismantles oppression instead of upholding it. 

Audre Lorde’s “Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Difference,” builds off of Lorde’s previous works on difference and repetition by explaining how it manifests in different ways to continue oppression. In addition, Lorde upholds that women should be aware of intersectionalities of feminism with racism, classism, ageism and heterosexism. Ignoring “difference” but embracing the differences within women is crucial to dismantling oppression. 

Finally, Robert Stam and Ella Shohat in their piece “Stereotype, Realism, and the Struggle Over Representation,” discusses the portrayals of marginalized communities in film. They delve into “positive” and “negative” portrayals of these groups, as well as historical pushback from these communities. In addition, Stam and Shohat add nuance to the discourse surrounding “stereotypes,” and instead offer up an alternative explanation that film is a culmination of societal perception just as much as it is the creation of the characters themselves. 

With all these theorists in mind, I will first describe the commonalities among the works, then discuss the differences each present. Finally, using the HBO series “The Watchmen,” I will explain how each of the theorists would feasibly compliment and discuss two scenes within the television series. 

By utilizing the theories of all of these authors, I will explain how “The Watchmen,” particularly their developments of characters like protagonist Angela Abar and her grandfather Will Reeves, as well as Dr. Manhattan are products of portrayals of race, sexuality and gender. In addition the narrative focus of the series serves to emphasize their individual struggles with identity and societal oppression, as well as their actions done in an attempt to subvert them. 

SECTION 1–Dominant Culture and Stereotyping as a Means of Oppression: 

All of the theorists, from Fanon’s view of the collective unconscious of the black community, to Lorde’s definition of the “master’s tools,” in investigating institutional oppression specifically examine the psychological ripple effect perpetuated by stereotyping. They delve into the social implications of harmful narratives, as well as providing strategies on how to overcome generational, institutional, and social oppression. 

Fanon’s work examines how black people are psychologically affected by harmful stereotyping of black individuals in media, specifically stories targeted towards young children. It is this reinforcement, Fanon says, that villainizes the black community through learned racism. Through adulthood, it is seemingly impossible for a black individual to dismantle these stereotypes from the perceptions of people, particularly the “white world, “(111) (1). He explores how colonization and systemic racism impacts the psyche and identity of the colonized. Fanon's work emphasizes the ways in which colonialism and its modern day manifestations in storytelling creates psychological trauma and a learned unconscious sense of inferiority among colonized peoples, also known as the “collective unconscious,” (112) (2). In order to overcome these learned societal expectations put upon black individuals, Fanon writes that through “collective catharsis” of narratives that empower black culture and dismantle colonial thinking, they may begin to feel less pressured to adapt oneself to eurocentric expectations, and overcome generational traumas that shape their actions in a eurocentric society.

hook’s reading also touches on the effects of negative portrayals of black individuals in the media, specifically black women. She argues that black women face a multitudes of harmful stereotyping in media, writing that “When most black people in the United States first had the opportunity to look at film and television, they did so fully aware that mass media was a system of knowledge and power reproducing and maintaining white supremacy, “ (308) (3). Similar to Fanon, hooks states that societal oppression of black people stems from upholding ideals of white supremacy. This in turn leads to limited portrayal of black people onscreen, and leaves black women with even fewer characters to express relatability due to oppression from the white community as well as black men. hooks states the way for black women to regain agency in light of stereotyping onscreen is the “oppositional gaze,” or when black women create new meaning from media to critique and evolve new meaning: “We create alternative texts that are not solely reactions. As critical spectators, black women participate in a broad range of looking relations, contest, resist, revision, interrogate, and invent on multiple levels,” (317) (4). 

Lorde critiques stereotyping as a tool of oppression that reduces individuals to narrow, oversimplified categories based on age, race, class, and sex, especially relating to women. She highlights how these stereotypes perpetuate power imbalances and limit people's self-expression and agency. Stereotypes, according to Lorde, are tools used by dominant groups to maintain control and suppress the voices and experiences of marginalized communities. Furthermore, they restrict individuals' abilities to fully express their unique identities and experiences, forcing them into predefined roles that are often dehumanizing and oppressive. Lorde offers up multiple solutions that go against institutional strategies designed to oppress or “the master’s tools,” (112) (5). Lorde advocates for a culture of women that embrace intersectionality and the many differences in womens’ experiences to create interconnectedness. This unity can help dismantle harmful narratives about different types of women and create affinity stemming from diverse experiences. 

Stam and Shohat work discusses the negative effects of stereotypes in film, as well as advocating for a nuanced interpretation of stereotypes themselves.The authors discuss how stereotypes through the eurocentric lens can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and cultural misrepresentation. Stereotypical portrayals in media and popular culture contribute to reinforcing biased perceptions and limiting opportunities for nuanced understanding and empathy of marginalized groups despite pushback. Furthermore, stereotypes can contribute to internalized oppression, where individuals from marginalized groups may internalize negative stereotypes about their own identity. Although representation can go a long way to amending previous harmful portrayals, it is discourse, the authors argue, which makes overcoming stereotyping possible. They write “Rather than directly reflecting the real, or even refracting the real, artistic discourse constitutes a refraction of a refraction; that is, a mediated version of an already textualized and "discursivized" socio ideological world. This formulation transcends a naive referential verism without falling into a "hermeneutic nihilism" whereby all texts become nothing more than a meaningless play of signification,” (180) (6). All in all, societal critique of realism and stereotypes in text is the most critical lens in which to dismantle negative portrayals of marginalized communities. 

SECTION 2–Emerging Stereotypes, Amending Stereotypes: 

Though all the authors write about stereotypes and various ways of dismantling them, each has a vastly different approach in doing so. Each theorists presents a differential view on the role of agency and opposition to oppression institutions 

For one, Fanon states that it is through the unlearning of a black individual’s unconscious thoughts and actions of inferiority that the community can overcome societal oppression driven by colonization. Fanon takes an introspective, psychoanalytic approach focused on excavating how racist colonial stereotypes become entrenched in the unconscious of the black community, in order to dismantle their psychological hold and heal one’s diminished sense of self worth. Unlike others, Fanon’s approach focuses on amending the individual’s mindset, rather than shifting the views of others. 

In hook’s essay, she also mentions that black women face a unique form of oppression from not only the dominant white culture, but from black men as well. This mention of intersectionality that differs black and white women deviates slightly from Fanon’s “collective unconscious” of the unified experiences of the entire black community. She quotes a previous essay she wrote about her experience viewing black women onscreen: “We laughed with the black men, with the white people. We laughed at this black woman who was not us. And we did not even long to be there on the screen,” (311) (7). As a way to regain agency over portrayal of black women in cinema, hooks advocates for the oppositional gaze which involves black female viewers consciously interrogating the racial and gender biases embedded in mainstream visual culture, rather than passively consuming stereotypical images. She encourages black women to not take the backseat in witnessing their own oppression onscreen, but instead undermine the phallocentric gaze in which men derive visual pleasure from black women. The oppositional gaze empowers black women to resist stereotyping by critically deconstructing objectifying representations.

Lorde argues that the "master’s tools" of racism, sexism, homophobia, and other forms of oppression cannot be used to effectively dismantle those same oppressive systems and ideologies. Honing in on the feminist movement, Lorde rejects the exclusion of women belonging to other marginalized groups, and calls for a unification of women regardless of “difference,” in experience to present a collective, unified voice that uplifts those often left out of academic feminist spaces. “​​Without community there is no liberation, only the most vulnerable and temporary armistice between an individual and her oppression. But community must not mean a shedding of our differences, nor the pathetic pretense that these differences do not exist,” (112) (8). Lorde advocates for developing new frameworks, language, and ways of thinking that emerge from and validate the realities of those facing multiple, intersecting oppressions.

Shohat and Stam offer different origins for the emergence of stereotypes themselves, stating that ​​institutional settings and power structures enable stereotyping, beyond just the representations themselves as well as the politics of language use, casting decisions, and audience expectations that shape stereotypical portrayals. The authors offer a more nuanced appraisal of stereotypes because they argue that due to historical development, stereotypes are malleable because they are products of social and economic change. They argue that dismantling stereotypes requires analyzing the broader discursive structures, institutions, and practices that produce and enable stereotypical representations, not just changing the representations themselves.

SECTION 3:

Episode 6: “This Extraordinary Being”

In episode 6, Will Reeve’s, Angela’s grandfather, takes on the persona of “Hooded Justice” to anonymously fight white supremacists due to the discrimination he faces in the police force. The scene takes place in Will and June’s apartment (Kassell, 0:23:37). After will puts on his signature hood and noose outfit, June puts white makeup on the part of his face where his eyes are exposed. She tells him the reason is ““You're gonna get it with that hood. And if you want to stay a hero, townsfolk gonna need to think one of their own's under it.”

Fanon’s reaction to this scene applies directly to his theory of the collective unconscious among the black community. Due to learned colonial idealizations, Will and June believe that the only way to gain validity in white society is by masquerading as a white person. Because Fanon writes black people are demonized from a very early age, he would uphold that Will and June are using the white makeup as a defense mechanism of safety due their shared experiences with trauma. This would be a correct assumption, as Reeves previously was almost lynched by his fellow police officers for attempting to arrest a man with alleged KKK affilliations. 

hook’s interpretation would hone in on the transition from Reeve’s reflection of the white face point, to Angela’s reflection as she experiences the transformation simultaneously due to the nostalgia drugs she takes. hooks would highlight the use of the oppositional gaze in portraying Angela in the footsteps of her grandfather. Not only does the fight to end societal and institutional oppression transcend generations, but by portraying Angela in the reflection of a superhero, she takes agency over her own life’s purpose and inserts herself into this new interpretation of reality. This ties in with hook’s argument that deriving new meaning and critiquing media dismantles oppression and opens up alternative means for interpretation. 

 Lorde was deeply critical of systems of oppression, including racism and white supremacy. The scene portrays Will Reeves, a black man, having to conceal his racial identity by adopting a white persona in order to operate as a superhero and fight injustice, in other words, using the master’s tools. From this lens, she may have critiqued the scene as reinforcing the idea that black identity and empowerment must be suppressed or hidden within a white supremacist framework in order to be deemed heroic or acceptable. At the same time, the scene highlights Reeves' subversive use of the "Hooded Justice" guise to resist racist systems and fight for justice, which Lorde may have seen as an act of resistance against oppression, albeit one constrained by the limitations imposed by a racist society.

Shohat and Stam would highlight the fact that Reeve’s is conforming to the eurocentric standard of whiteness to be seen as heroic to white society. However, because their belief is that stereotypes are an ever changing product of time and development, the authors would argue that the discourse surrounding this scene would result in a positive notion that June and Will, as a result of the limiting society they lived in at the time, used the mask of a white person as a symbol of resistance and silent irony against the white people who use institutionalized law and social discrimination to oppress them. Ultimately, while the scene could be interpreted as a powerful commentary on the insidious nature of racism.

 Episode 8: “A God Walks into Abar”

Dr. Manhattan tells Angela in the bar previously that she will concoct a great idea to hide his true identity so that they can be together. The scene finally comes to fruition in the morgue (Kassell, 0:42:53), where Angela sorts through a multitude of dead bodies to construct Dr. Manhattan’s new identity. Finally, Angela uncovers the body of Calvin, a construction worker that died in Saigon. She picks the final one for Dr. Manhattan’s transformation, and he assumes this person as his own. Angela looks at him in his new form, and embraces him with hope and relief. 

Frantz Fanon’s analysis of the scene would specifically hone in on the choice of bodies for Dr. Manhattan’s transformation. Angela noticeably is hesitant to select Calvin’s body in the wake of the other men (white). Fanon would cite this reasoning as a manifestation of the “collective unconscious” of black individuals. He would argue that Angela is internally grappling with whether to deny her own desires and identity to be accepted within colonial culture, and wonders if she should pick a white male for Dr. Manhattan to appear as because she has an unconscious inferiority complex in proximity to whiteness. 

Building off of that note, hooks would likely applaud Angela’s agency in choosing the representation of Doctor Manhattan. By picking out a visual identity for Doctor Manhattan, and being satisfied with the results, Angela uses the oppositional gaze to define her own representation of reality. Instead of passively accepting her role in Doctor Manhattan’s life, she redefines her portrayal of him in a physical manner, restating her agency and taking the reins on her own personal comfort level. 

Lorde on the other hand would critique Angela’s behavior. She would likely state that by using the “master’s tools,” to change Dr. Manhattan’s appearance to make him presentable for society, she is actively using the tools of oppression to perpetuate the ideals of dominant white culture. In addition, she would critique how Angela, as a black woman, is forced to accept and internalize this stereotypical, inauthentic depiction of black masculinity in order to have a relationship with Dr. Manhattan. In essence, through Lorde's intersectional feminist lens, this scene exemplifies how oppressive racial and gender hierarchies remain deeply entrenched, with the powerful white male perspective still dictating how black identities are represented and consumed, even in seemingly progressive narratives.

Shohat and Stam would likely scrutinize the overall decision making process behind superhero narratives that allow for a white male character like Dr. Manhattan to simply "put on" a black persona as a form of masquerade or performance. They would emphasize how this scene exemplifies the politics of casting decisions and the white male gaze dictating representations of blackness, rather than amplifying authentic black voices and perspectives. Although they would likely critique this aspect, they would probably have a more nuanced view and conclude that this scene cannot be viewed in isolation, but emerges from and reinforces larger discursive structures of racism, stereotyping and objectification of black people. 

Conclusion:

In my analysis of the theorists, synthesized with “Watchmen”, it can be concluded that stereotypes are a product of dominant oppression, internalized oppression and the ever changing political climate of society. Due to the complex nature of their emergence, there is no one way to fully dismantle them. Some methods may be tied to the individual, while others have to do with accepting differences in lived experience. Dismantling oppression through years of conditioning and unconscious bias is no easy task, but consuming media through a critical, agency-driven lens is crucial to being able to recognize oppression when it occurs.  

Bibliography

Fanon, Frantz. "The Negro and Psychopathology." In Black Skin, White Masks, 141-209. New York: Grove Press, 1967. Pg. 111.

Fanon, pg. 112.

hooks, bell. "Oppositional Gaze: Black Female Spectators." In Black Looks: Race and Representation, 115-131. Boston: South End Press, 1992. Pg. 308.

hooks, pg. 317.

Lorde, Audre. "Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Difference." In Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches. Trumansburg, NY: Crossing Press, 1984. Pg. 112

Shohat, Ella, and Robert Stam. "Stereotype, Realism, and the Struggle Over Representation." In Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media, edited by Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, 277-309. London: Routledge, 1994, pg. 180.

hooks, pg. 311.

Lorde,  pg. 112

Race and Representation

Orientalist Theory

Orientalist theory refers to the distinction made between the orient and the occident, which is more often than not a use of power structure and dynamics to make the orient seem inferior or exotic to its western counterpart. In the video clip titled “The Siamese Cat Song” from Lady and the Tramp, two siamese cats are featured singing about their ambitions to hunt and kill the other pets in the house such as the fish and the parrot. There are important details in this clip that make distinctions between the “west” and “east”, according to Said’s theory. The cats have slanted eyes and slink in perfect unison around the environment mischievously while singing “we are Siamese if you please,” and so forth. This causes shock and apprehension from Lady, the dog, who has doe-eyes standing guard of the other pets in the home. This depiction can be interpreted as a direct demonstration of how the “Occident” views the “Orient” with intrigue and apprehension. The distinctions made between the cats, with the way they walk and smirk perfectly simultaneously, and the dog who perceives them as exotic and threatening applies directly to Said’s argument of how power dynamics between the west and east exist. Specifically, how the west uses harmful portrayals of easterners to solidify their control over social norms. Orientalism, in this context, is used to differentiate the known from the mysterious and exotic unknown by assigning fantastical mannerisms and troublesome actions to the characters. The validity of these portrayals are not questioned, according to Said, stating “Because this tendency is right at the center of Orientalist theory, practice, and values found in the West, the sense of Western power over the Orient is taken for granted as having the status of scientific truth,” (54) (1). These limiting interpretations of the east are accepted as common throughout the region, as further perpetuated by the unison of the cat’s movements, because the west holds the belief they as a society are superior.

 Stereotype 

 A stereotype, often portrayed in television and film, is an expectation or assumption placed upon a group of people and typically a simplified version of the complex reality of this group of people. In Peter Pan, a song called “What Makes the Red Man Red,” showcases Native Americans through stereotypical behaviors and characteristics associated with the group such as a red face, smoking tobacco, and broken english. Throughout the song, Peter and company gawk at the Native Americans, mocking their seriousness and affinity for tribal traditions. The stereotyping of indigenous culture paints this group as a monolith, lacking depth and historical accuracy in dress and tradition. These stereotypes are reminiscent of colonialism in the Americas, upholding the structures of power that suggest that Europeans are superior to others. Shohat comments on this commonality in media stating “Europeans and Euro-Americans have played the dominant role, relegating non-Europeans to supporting roles and the status of extras,” (189) (2). By simplifying a group of people down to idealizations upheld by the eurocentric lens, the Native Americans in this setting are nothing more than a source of entertainment to the white protagonists as an advancement of the plot.

Cultural Dominant

The cultural dominant, according to Stuart Hall, is the set of ideologies perpetuated by media that portray the biases, viewpoints and political positions of those dominant in the social order. Stuart Hall, in his theory of encoding and decoding, states that audiences do not passively encode these messages, and people, especially those in marginalized groups actively reject or reinterpret specific codes. All in all, Hall’s interpretation of the cultural dominant means taking an active role in processing popular media and challenging the messaging that is pushed through it. During the song in Dumbo “When I See an Elephant Fly,” numerous portrayals and messaging relating to politics around African Americans are present. For one, the song is performed by a group of crows who speak in stereotypical African American dialect and use jive-like speech patterns. This plays into racist stereotypes prevalent at the time, with the lead crow named "Jim Crow" after the laws enforcing racial segregation. Since the film was released in 1941, this portrayal relates to political messaging at the time, with the dominant white culture pushing for racial segregation in Jim Crow laws. Although this portrayal of African Americans upholds racist sentiments from the time, Hall writes that it is the job of viewers to interact with media and subvert expectations put onto politically charged characters such as the crows in Dumbo. By recognizing the societal and political implications behind the crow’s portrayal in the movie, viewers take a stance of resistance against it and offer up multiple implications looking past the character.

Eurocentrism

According to Ella Shohat, Eurocentrism is not simply a synonym for "European", but rather a way of viewing the world from a European perspective that is often linked to European colonization of other parts of the world. Eurocentrism even goes so far as to justify systems of power that oppress marginalized groups, labeling it as progress. In the case of “Everybody Wants to be a Cat” in Aristocats, eurocentrism idealizes being a European. By making European culture seem desirable, this ideal actively upholds the systems of eurocentrism that makes the “west” look superior. Throughout the clip, a jazzy tune upholds the sentiments of the cats singing “everybody wants to be a cat,”. However, the differences among the cats present distinct musical breaks that invoke a different reaction depending on the cat. The siamese cat is once again portrayed as a monolith of the east. The cat plays the piano with chopsticks, lyricising about stereotypical things of the east such as “fortune cookies,”. The tune awkwardly cuts in to the song, and does not incite a positive reaction from the other cats. On the other hand, the harp solo from the white female cat incites wonder and awe from the audience, presenting a romantic tune that blends into the rest of the song. These solos present distinct differences because eurocentrism upholds the sentiment that European culture norms “fit” and are viewed as desirable, while cultural “others” do not fit nicely into European society, and shouldn’t be given attention. Shohat and Stam comment on this “othering” by stating “Third World and minoritarian people, it is implied, are incapable of speaking for themselves. Unworthy of stardom either in the movies or in political life, they need a go-between in the struggle for emancipation,” (205) (4). This passage implies that cultural others do not fit into “civilized” society and do not have the same agency or expression that the dominant European culture is entitled to. 

Essentialism

Essentialism is the tendency to view cultures, identities, and social groups as having a fixed, unchanging essence. Shohat and Stam write that this is problematic because this ideology ignores the complex and ever diversifying nature of identity and culture. These identities are not stagnant, they are a constantly evolving group of individuals. The song features the character King Louie, an orangutan who wants to be human and learn the secret of fire from Mowgli. This plays into essentialist notions of a fixed, unchanging "essence" of humanity that Louie desires to emulate. However, Shohat and Stam argue that identities are not fixed essences, but rather are "relational, conjunctural, discursive and constantly shifting. Louie's desire to be human ignores the transitory and fluid nature of identity. Shohat and Stam add that “it ignores the historical instability of the stereotype and even of language,” (199) (5). The lyricism in the song adds to this sentiment, implying that King Louie has the closest proximity to being a human, and therefore is superior in the animal hierarchy. By placing these animals into boxes, reminiscent of human society, this clip illuminates the absurdity of placing humans into separate categories. Animals may be fundamentally different among species, but humans are all of the same kind and in theory should make them immune to arbitrary social hierarchy based on outward appearance. People are not stereotypical like animals are, humans are a culmination of societal advancement and ever changing history.

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Bibliography

Said, Edward W.. "The Scope of Orientalism" in Orientalism, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1978, pg. 54.

Shohat, Ella and Stam, Robert. "Stereotype, Realism, and the Struggle Over Representation" in Unthinking Eurocentrism, London: Routledge, 1994, pg. 189.

Hall, Stuart. "What is this ‘Black’ in Black Popular Culture?" In Black Popular Culture: A Project by Michele Wallace, edited by Gina Dent, 21-33. Seattle: Bay Press, 1992.

Shohat and Stam, pg. 205.

Male gaze:

The concept of the "male gaze" was coined by feminist film theorist Laura Mulvey. It refers to the perspective in which visual media, particularly film, is often constructed from a heterosexual male point of view. This male gaze objectifies and sexualizes women, positioning them as passive objects for the pleasure and consumption of the male viewer. Rather than being depicted as fully realized human beings, women in media under the male gaze are reduced to their physical attributes and presented solely for the visual gratification of the presumed male spectator. In the case of this panel in Sandman (page 408), one of the female characters, Rose, appears mostly nude, falling from the sky, being covered by nothing but a cloth. Upon reading the panels and the surrounding storyline, there is no clear reason for this depiction of Rose and her fall from grace. This panel contributes to the male gaze through the objectification of Rose, and the sexualization of her body for aesthetic pleasure. In addition, there are many stills captured of her as she falls with no clear reason other than to emphasize her nudity in this scene. In the eyes of Mulvey, this depiction means “their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness,” (715) (1). Rose’s role in this panel is purely exhibitionary, and neither adds to her character development in the story nor gives her depth beyond a display captured in her multiple nude illustrations.

Scopophilia:

The concept of scopophilia refers to the pleasure and power dynamics inherent in the act of looking and being looked at, often associated with voyeurism in visual media.

This term encompasses both the desire to view others, as well as the desire to be seen and visually consumed. It reflects the power dynamics at play, where the viewer holds a position of authority and control over the object of their gaze. This concept is shaped by cultural norms and expectations surrounding visibility, surveillance, and the objectification of the human body. In this particular panel, a woman is seen splayed out naked on a bed, seemingly in a sexual context. The text elaborates on this panel, with a man describing fetishization of trans women. This connects back to Mulvey’s explanation of scopophilia, explaining that it “exists as drive quite independently of the erotogenic zones.' It is about 'taking people as objects, [and] subjecting them to a controlling and curious gaze," (713) (2). Using Mulvey’s theory, this panel reduces the woman as a commodity to be looked at, fetishized, and to derive pleasure from. Examining the dialogue as well, the woman lacks her own agency, being talked about entirely in the third person, in reference to how she can be used for the pleasure of the man. In addition, the man capturing the woman as the center of his focus emphasizes the box he places the woman into as something exotic, quoting “There's something about preoperative transsexuals that makes the connoisseur uncomfortable. Something brittle and bright in the back of their eyes. He loves them”. This description of the woman emphasizes the voyeuristic view of both the man’s words and actions, but the objectification of the drawing of the woman as well. Her sole purpose is to be looked at, observed and to create pleasure.

Mythical Norm:

The term mythical norm was widely developed by Audre Lorde, describing the dominant societal standards that are often based on a narrow, idealized image of a "normal" individual or group, typically white, heterosexual, and male. This norm marginalizes and excludes those who do not conform to it. The mythical norm in the context of Sandman manifests into the portrayal of mythical beings who hold significant power. In particular, the Sandman himself is a representation of a mythical idea with its physical form taking the appearance of a heterosexual white male. On page 195 of the comic, the Sandman’s physical power is exhibited in scale. All in all, the character Sandman upholds the common trope that mythical manifestations of power in the mortal world, those having to do with dreams, deception, prosperity a majority of the time appear in the human form of male. Lord comments that mythical norms are “the trappings of power reside within this society. Those of us who stand outside that power often identify one way in which we are different, and we assume that to be the primary cause of all oppression forgetting other distortions around difference…” (116) (3). Mythical norms affect viewership in the sense that when people in positions of power in media are depicted solely as white heterosexual males, this lack of diversity manifests into insecurity in real life. People don’t see themselves in high positions of power because artificial recreations of power structure uphold the power structure in real life. The Sandman upholds the repeated idea that white heterosexual men are the pinnacle of power in society.

Oppositional Gaze:

The oppositional gaze refers to a type of viewership described by bell hooks as the phenomenon where “Black female spectators actively chose not to identify with the film's imaginary subject because such identification was disenabling,” (313) (4). This essentially describes the rebellion of the viewership of black women from choosing not to identify with the film's imaginary subject because such identification was so at odds with their lived experience. Applying this viewership to an analysis of Sandman, the mini story within the comic titled “Tales in the Sand,” where Nada, the queen of a land falls in love with the god of dreams, and kills herself to avoid being his queen. She initially refuses to marry a man and rules her kingdom solely. However, she encounters a stranger and goes to great lengths to find him. When she discovers he is an immortal god, she refuses to be with him and runs away while Kai'Ckul pursues her. She kills herself after her kingdom is destroyed by the sun. She is chased in the afterlife while still refusing to join Kai’Ckul’s kingdom. This story refers to the oppositional gaze from multiple angles of the story. Nada, a woman of color, maintains her agency throughout the story from refusing to marry a man for the sake of validity, and choosing her own destiny without needing a man. Nada subverts classic tropes of femininity and is the protagonist of her own story. She is also depicted as a woman in power, despite her facing oppression from a man in power above her. This is significant, however, because she refuses to concede to the whims of a man, and sacrifices herself as an act of rebellion, maintaining her ideals in the end.

Gender Norms:

Gender norms are arbitrary societal expectations and standards regarding behaviors, roles, and attributes considered appropriate for individuals based on their perceived gender. These norms often reinforce traditional binary understandings of gender and may condemn alternate expressions that deviate from these norms. In another miniature story in the comic titled “Playing House”, Litya grapples with feeling unfulfilled by the traditional life she leads. She feels a loss of control over her life because she lacks freedom to pursue the dreams she left behind for her husband. Eventually, Sandman kills her husband for pretending to be him, and tells Lidya she should be grateful because she now has the freedom to pursue her own life. It is at this point where she realizes two things: she was living in a dream for years of the “perfect life”, and she was done letting men control her life and make decisions for her. This story subverts gender norms by showing that the idea of “playing house” doesn’t lead to satisfaction, it leads into a constant haze of unfulfilled desires and superficial happiness. Although Litya thought the perfect life was quote “mommy, daddy and a kid,” she actually leads a life of constant sadness and feeling like she is taking the backseat to her own livelihood. She plays a character, and in turn leads a pretend life, like a “dream”, in Lidya’s words. Judith Butler emphasizes that gender norms are essentially a “drag performance”, quoting “'imitation' is at the heart of the heterosexual project and its gender binarisms, that drag is not a secondary imitation that presupposes a prior and original gender, but that hegemonic heterosexuality is itself a constant and repeated effort to imitate its own idealizations,” (338) (5). Gender as a performance is a repeated act to uphold previous reproductions of norms implemented in society. Lidya feels unfulfilled in her seemingly perfect life because she is living a life of fantastical acts of what she thinks is appropriate for her gender.

Bibliography

(1) Laura Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” in Film Theory and Criticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), pg. 715.

(2) Mulvey, pg. 713

(3) Lorde, Audre. "The Master's Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master's House." Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches, Crossing Press, 2007, pg. 116.

(4) bell hooks, “The Oppositional gaze: Black Female Spectators” in Feminist Film Theory (New York: New York University Press, 1999), pg. 313.

(5) Butler, Judith. "Gender Is Burning: Questions of Appropriation and Subversion." Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex", Routledge, 1993, pg. 338.

Term #1: Uncanny

The term “uncanny”, is a term that psychologist Sigmund Freud describes as something that is familiar yet unfamiliar. The five traits he uses to assign to an uncanny experience is unhomeliness, repetition, the presence of a doppelgänger, inanimate objects having animate traits, the return of the repressed, and the ambiguity between reality and fantasy. In the final scene of “Squeeze” from The X Files, Tooms is shown in a slow closeup shot, cutting between his slight grin and a small opening in his prison cell left by the people who put his food through a slot. This leaves the episode in an ambiguous resolution, and creates an intellectual uncertainty with the audience whether Tooms, an alien who can squeeze through tight spaces to attack his victims, has really been caught, or if he makes his escape. According to Freud, the uncanny is “The most remarkable coincidences of desire and fulfillment, the most mysterious recurrence of similar experiences in a particular place or on a particular date, the most deceptive sights and suspicious noises—none of these things will take him in or raise that kind of fear which can be described as ‘a fear of something uncanny’,” (402) (1). The recurrence of a small space that Tooms can squeeze through the episode leaves the audience on shaky ground. What was formerly accepted as a firm resolution, turns into a coincidental lack of attention by the prison guard, and opens up a realm of uncanny possibilities without any confirmation of an ending. A true uncanny event is one that leaves one wondering what the true reality of the situation is. The last scene in this episode is executed well, as there is a suggestion that Tooms may have escaped, but none can be sure of the truth.

Term #2: Heimlich

Another term used by Freud is “heimlich” This translates to “familiar” or “at home”. He notes that heimlich is “Friendly, intimate, homelike; the enjoyment of quiet content, etc., arousing a sense of peaceful pleasure and security as in one within the four walls of his house,” (372) (2). In the scene where Tooms attacks Scully in her apartment, (0:36:27-0:39:05), he sneaks through the vents of her home and attacks her in her bathroom. Scully’s home, or heimlich, is a place of rest, supposedly where she is to feel most safe and comfortable, according to Freud’s theory. Tooms is known for victimizing people by sneaking through the vents or chimney’s of people’s place of work or their personal homes or apartments. By attacking victims in their homes, and sometimes stealing personal effects, a sense of uncanniness is created from Tooms, as he completely shatters the safety bubble of the heimlich. His ability to invade seemingly secure spaces taps into primal fears of invasion and vulnerability. This also creates an aura of unexpectedness, as even though one can create an illusion of safety by locking doors or windows, this character can bypass this layer of security by infiltrating cramped spaces that a normal person wouldn’t. A sense of fear is created when the place or feeling one deems as secure or homelike (heimlich), is forcefully entered and made unsafe. Otherwise known as uncanny, where the familiar becomes the unfamiliar.

Term #3: Disalienation

For Fanon, "disalienation" refers to the process through which individuals, particularly those who have been oppressed or colonized, reclaim their sense of agency, dignity, and humanity. It involves breaking free from the internalized feelings of inferiority, self-doubt, and dependency imposed by colonial structures. Disalienation is about regaining a sense of self-worth, autonomy, and empowerment. Throughout this episode of X-Files, the character Fox Mulder, a part of the FBI’s paranormal activity unit, is repeatedly belittled and ignored because of his unconventional methods of approaching cases. For instance, he asked seemingly unrelated questions during Toom’s lie detector test that made the other agents question his validity. When Scully gets attacked by Tooms in her apartment (0:38:45-0:39:08), Mulder comes to her rescue and handcuffs him. Mulder victoriously comments that he won’t meet his quota this year. It is in this moment that Mulder attains a sense of self-confidence in his ability. It is confirmation that his unconventional methods ended up being a success in catching the killer, regardless of the criticism of the other agents. Franz Fanon explains that the goal of disalienation is to “persuade the group to progress to reflection and mediation,” (141) (3). This scene is a liberating moment for not only Mulder, but the investigative branch of the FBI that has been the subject of jokes and criticism, causing it to fall at the bottom of the hierarchy among FBI agents. By proving this case’s validity, Mulder, Scully, and the other agents in the branch gain a sense of self-confidence in their abilities. 

Term #4: Collective Unconscious

The collective unconscious is a term used by Franz Fanon, originally coined by Carl Jung, to describe “an expression of the bad instincts, of the darkness inherent in every ego, of the uncivilized savage,” (144) (4). This term focuses on the subconscious thoughts shared by all human beings, containing universal, inherited, and pre-existing psychological patterns or archetypes. In the brains of all humans, we have expectations of experiences, people, or situations that shape our judgements. In the case of Tooms, his archetype affects the judgements of the FBI agents on his safety. During the polygraph test scene (0:15:02-0:20:09), Tooms is asked a series of questions, as he was previously caught squeezing through a chimney and arrested. After Mulder askes unconventional questions such as “are you 100 years old?”, the other agents Colton and Fuller stop the test. The examiner deems he passed, despite the two questions Mulder asked being deemed lies, and Fuller complains that Tooms was just a civil servant doing his job. Besides lie detector tests not being a reliable measure of someone’s innocence, it’s important to note that Tooms presents as a white male. Using Fanon’s application of the collective unconscious, many people have an unconscious bias of individuals based on their membership to groups. Oftentimes in the justice system, individuals belonging to marginalized groups receive harsher sentencing and treatment when arrested on the basis of a crime. His analysis of the situation, civil servant on paper being caught sneaking up a chimney, checked out in his mind because of his unconscious judgement based on the archetype he created of Tooms. Fuller refused to do further questioning and investigating, leaving Mulder and Scully to do it on their own. 

Term #5: Mirror Stage

The mirror stage is a concept employed by Jaques Lacan to describe a human psychological milestone occurring between 6 and 8 months of age where children can recognize themselves in a mirror. Lacan argues that this moment of self-recognition in the mirror is both exhilarating and disconcerting for the infant (78) (5). On one hand, it provides the infant with a sense of mastery and wholeness, as they perceive themselves as a unified and autonomous being separate from the external world. On the other hand, it also creates a sense of alienation and fragmentation, as the infant realizes that the image in the mirror does not fully correspond to their internal experience of themselves. Thinking Broadly in a societal interpretation of the mirror stage, the concept of Tooms and his abilities can be a distorted reflection of the collective fear and anxiety of home invasion. The feeling of never truly being safe no matter where one goes. The opening scene of this episode is a prime example of the threat Tooms presents(0:01:32-0:03:09). After Usher steps out of an elevator within an office building, he witnesses the doors reopening only to find the elevator cabin mysteriously absent. Usher then contacts his wife before departing from his office to grab a cup of coffee. As he exits, a ventilation shaft in his office silently loosens and begins to open. Upon Usher's return to his office, his door is shut, followed by the sounds of a struggle and repeated rattling of the door handle. The commotion ceases suddenly with a loud impact denting the door. As Usher's coffee spills onto the floor and he collapses lifeless, the ventilation shaft is promptly sealed shut once more. After the scene, the FBI agents describe the peculiarity of the murder, including that it took place in a high security building with no one occupying it. Tooms' actions and the fear he instills in others could represent a distorted mirror reflecting societal anxieties about vulnerability, invasion of privacy, and the presence of unseen threats. Just as the mirror stage represents a moment of both recognition and alienation, Tooms' actions in "Squeeze" evoke both a recognition of the primal fear of being hunted or invaded and a sense of alienation from the ordinary, safe world.

Bibliography

Freud, Sigmund The Uncanny” in Collected Papers Volume IV, trans. Joan Riviere (London: The Hogarth Press, 1948) pg. 402.

Freud, pg. 372.

Fritz Fanon, “The Negro And Psychopathology” in Black Skin White Masks, trans. Charles Lam Markmann (United Kingdom: Pluto Press, 1986), pg. 141.

Fanon, pg. 144.

Jacques Lacan, “The Mirror Stage as Formative of the I Function” in Écrits, trans. Bruce Fink (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006) pg. 78.

NOTE: Split in 2 parts, check notes :)

The “Barbie” movie, was a smash hit among all audiences upon its release in 2023. Directed by Greta Gerwig, “Barbie” explores themes of feminism, gender equity, womanhood, and resilience through the fictional universe of Barbie infiltrating into the real world. The movie presents these broad themes in an easily digestible, comical, and emotional narrative suitable for all audiences. This palatability and attraction for audiences can be explained by multiple theorists upon analysis of the film. “Barbie” masterfully uses signs in the film to both appeal to audiences, and created an accepted form of meaning through strong suggestion and framing. All of them provide thorough explanations in nuanced fashion pertaining to the devices used in film to create meaning, suggest ideas to the working class, transform the old to the new, and use storytelling to convey signs. Theorists Karl Marx and Frederic Engels in their work “The Ruling Class and the Ruling Ideals,” argue that the ruling class, typically the bourgeoisie in capitalist societies, maintains its power not only through economic means but also through the dissemination of ideologies that justify and perpetuate its dominance through cultural products such as art, literature, music, and mass media. Walter Benjamin in “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” hones in on how the advent of technologies such as photography and film has transformed the way art is produced, disseminated, and perceived in modern society. Benjamin argues that mechanical reproduction strips artworks of their aura, or unique presence, by making them easily replicable and widely accessible. Roland Barthes, “Mythologies” focuses on how modern culture, particularly mass media and consumerism, creates and perpetuates myths that shape societal beliefs and values. Finally, Giles Deleuze’s “Introduction: Repetition and Difference,” is an overview of the new meaning disseminated from different reproductions of a work and how modernism can shape societal perception of the signs emphasized in the reproduction. All of these works have their similarities in differences, which will be explored in the following explanation. First, it will be examined how all these theorists mentioned have similarities in their arguments. Then we will delve into the nuanced differences between their arguments. Finally, we will examine how these theorists work in harmony to unpack the purposeful signs and symbols seen in the Barbie movie, and their impact on the audience’s perception. 

Section 1: Signs transcended through ideology, art, mythology and transformation

From Marx and Engels to Deleuze, these theorists focus on the meaning of signs to critique dominant ideologies in culture and uncover underlying meaning through semiotic analysis. Marx and Engels in their work” The Ruling Class and the Ruling Ideals,” argue that the ruling class maintains its power through the dissemination of ideologies that justify and perpetuate its dominance. “The ruling ideas are nothing more than the ideal expression of the dominant material relations, the dominant material relations grasped as ideas; hence of the relations which make the one class the ruling one, therefore, the ideas of its dominance,” (59) (1). Through the implementation of signs in the media, the ruling class maintains its power by controlling the narrative that promotes their ideology. Therefore, by continuing to dispense uniform ideals down to the working class, they are taught to accept this continuous reinforcement. Similarly, Walter Benjamin, in "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," examines how mass media and technology influence the production and dissemination of cultural artifacts, challenging traditional notions of authenticity and originality. The “aura,” as he mentions or “that which withers in the age of mechanical reproduction is the aura of the work of art,” (668) (2), is the original sign essentially that gets lost through the replication of a work of art in modern day. Similar to Marx and Engles, Benjamin criticizes the industrialist and modern society that distorts cultural significance and kills creativity to present an empty reproduction that actively benefits the ruling class’s ideals. Roland Barthes, in "Mythologies," explores how modern culture creates and perpetuates myths through various forms of communication, shaping societal beliefs and values. Barthes uses the example of soap detergent advertisements to demonstrate how signs are reshaped to perpetuate a narrative that supports the ideals of the company: “One could then usefully contrast the psycho-analysis of purifying fluids (chlorinated, for example) with that of soap-powders (Lux, Persil) or that of detergents (Omo). The relations between the evil and the cure, between dirt and a given product, are very different in each case,” (34) (3). Barthes affirms that by applying an “evil” connotation to the concept of dirt, there becomes a societal fixation on purity and cleanliness that aligns with the detergent company’s mission of selling products. A sign itself does not have an inherent and logical meaning, but societal perception can apply a positive or negative connotation, often directed by the ruling class (those who own the means of production, like corporations). Signs are distorted or stripped of their original meaning to promote commercial gain in the argument of Barthes. Gilles Deleuze, in "Introduction: Repetition and Difference," delves into the nature of repetition in philosophical thought, questioning established structures and systems of knowledge. Deleuze specifically questions the meaning of signs through generations, how certain knowledge can be emphasized versus overlooked in new media. “...repetition is a transgression. It puts law into question, it denounces its nominal or general character in favour of a more profound and more artistic reality,” (3) (4). Through repetition, new meaning not previously shown can be dissected. Through reproduction, repetition, production, and dissemination of ideas, signs are changed, distorted, transformed or critically perceived. Throughout these transformations of signs, these theorists point out the potential disastrous effects of the malleability of signs through forms of media production and reproduction and through generations. Though these theorists present commonalities in their work, their takes use different approaches and disciplines in their following analyses.

Section 2: Signs as a means for political representation versus critical thought and societal perception

While all the theorists present a critique of sign’s use in society as potentially harmful to its meaning, Marx and Engels as well as Benjamin hone in on the political impact of the signified meaning of signs. In contrast, Deleuze and Barthes focus more on the development of signs and their signified meaning through the development of society. Marx and Engels focus primarily on the economic base of society, emphasizing the material conditions of production and class struggle. They argue that the ruling class, or bourgeoisie, maintains its power through control of the means of production and the dissemination of ideologies that justify its dominance.Their analysis is deeply rooted in historical materialism and dialectical materialism, viewing social change as driven by contradictions within the capitalist system. “Once the ruling ideas have been separated from the ruling individuals and above all from the relations which result from a given stage of the mode of production, and in this way the conclusion has been reached that history is always under the sway of ideas, it is very easy to abstract from these various ideas ‘the Idea’,” (61) (5). According to this theory, the ruling class has separated themselves from the interests and ideologies they dispense in order to convince society the ruling class ideals are “general ideals”. Signs and symbols within ruling class ideology are purposefully promoted through economic means of media and material production to uplift the ruling class off of the backs of the working class that support it. In short, Marx and Engels argue that the ruling class utilizes societal perception of signs to promote a singular ideology to justify their dominance and keep the working class complacent.

PART I: Freedom! '90" George Michael

The music video for "Freedom! '90" by George Michael is a visually iconic and cinematic piece directed by David Fincher. Released in 1990, the video is known for its stylish and memorable scenes. The video does not feature George Michael himself; instead, it showcases five of the era's top supermodels: Naomi Campbell, Linda Evangelista, Christy Turlington, Cindy Crawford, and Tatjana Patitz. The supermodels lip-sync the lyrics of the song and perform various scenes. The video is a departure from Michael's earlier image and marks a significant moment in his career. It symbolizes his decision to step away from the spotlight and let his music speak for itself. The models, who were at the peak of their fame, are shown mouthing the lyrics, highlighting a transition from the image-driven phase of George Michael's career to a focus on his music and artistic expression. The video has a chic and glamorous aesthetic, combining visually stunning scenes of the models in rooms of an abandoned house, posing through streaks of sunlight and hues of blueshimmering on their faces, glimpses of water, and modern means for musical transmission.

Thinking in terms of Deleuze’s theory on repetition, multiple mediums of audio transmission can be seen throughout the music video. At 0:0:14, one of the models uses a laser to turn on a futuristic vinyl stereo setup, then the shot pans to a vhs tape player. The shot switches between these two music playing set ups and turns to a cd cover of george michael’s album “Listen Without Prejudice”. This emphasis on the continued auditory media as a means of communication suggests the duplication of the same ideas transcending generations of innovation, as well as creating and distributing music throughout multiple mediums to send a message. This evolution of technology containing an evolving idea of transmitting auditory media to the masses represents Deleuze’s idea that replication is a means to transform the meaning of an idea. The more these technological devices evolve, the more efficient and optimized listening to music can be, the more capabilities are possible and the more people can be reached via music. 

Through the perspective of Baudrillard, it can be interpreted that Michael is creating a new hyperreality for himself in the video. By using specific signs throughout the development of the shots, Michael distorts and solidifies new meanings of objects within the space. For instance, at 0:2:18, a motorcycle jacket is seen burning on its hanger. Delving into the meaning in real life, the BSA jacket shown in the video was an iconic piece that Michael wore during the Faith tour, where he experienced huge commercial success as a pop star. By burning the jacket, Michael metaphorically sheds his old identity and embraces a new sense of freedom and authenticity. The act of burning the jacket serves as a symbolic rebirth and a declaration of independence from the expectations of the music industry. Using Baudrillard’s terms, the burning of the jacket, as a form of simulacra, denotes the destruction of the reality Michael was currently in, and the creation of simulation through Michael’s autonomy of creative direction. Through another analysis of the signs in the video, the different forms of electronic mass media, Baudrillard’s theory suggests these signs maintain the illusion of reality.

At 0:0:45, Naomi Campbell is seen listening to the song through headphones, on top of the other mediums of media transmission previously mentioned. In addition, the main feature of the video is all of the models lip synching the song instead of Michael himself. Baudrillard’s theory applies to how mass media, especially in the form of electronics, maintains the illusion of reality. These auditory devices in essence “control” the models in this hyperreality, using them as the means to convey the message of the song. The video begins with them turning on the devices, and ends with them conveying the same lyrics that were being played by the electronics.

Finally, examining the video utilizing the theories of Jameson’s postmodernism, the video can be interpreted through symbols used of the shallow nature of commercialization and consumer culture. Jameson's criticism of postmodernism includes the notion of "empty signifiers," where cultural products lack depth and critical engagement. In the video, the glamorous and stylish representation of supermodels, although visually striking, may be seen as lacking in substantive content. The emphasis on aesthetics and surface-level appeal aligns with Jameson's critique of the shallowness in postmodern cultural production. Though this may be true just looking at the visual elements in the video, the lyrical message behind the song tells another story. Famousky, Michael sings the line “sometimes the clothes do not make the man”. Meaning that one may be satisfied with a material means of happiness, but they are a shallow representation of the individual beyond their capitalistic idealization. The use of models in the video highlights the need to use commercially accepted visions of beauty and glamor to convey messages to the masses, because this is used by the ruling class. The main theme of the song is Michael’s desire to distance himself from the highly commercial pop star image of himself, singing “But today the way I play the game is not the same, No way, Think I’m gonna get myself happy”. He rejects the emptiness of his previous images, and wants to pursue genuine happiness through feeling genuine in his artistry. Models are often used as surface level vessels to promote brands and corporations, it can be interpreted that Michael uses them to convey the messages of “Freedom” to encourage people to break free from the shackles of consumer culture and pursue happiness outside of material gain.

Through Deleuze's theory on repetition, the use of multiple mediums for audio transmission symbolizes the evolution of technology and the transformative power of replicating ideas across generations. In Baudrillard's lens, the video becomes a narrative of Michael creating a new reality for himself by distorting and solidifying meanings of objects, especially through the symbolic act of burning his iconic jacket. Baudrillard's hyperreality concept is evident in the models being controlled by electronic mass media, maintaining the illusion of reality. Furthermore, Jameson's postmodernism critique unveils a juxtaposition between the visually glamorous representation of supermodels and the song's deeper message, revealing the emptiness of commercialization and consumer culture. The video challenges the superficiality of postmodern cultural production by using models as vessels to convey a message urging people to break free from the constraints of a consumerist society that controls them.

Discussion Questions:

What scenes in the video stood out to you in terms of commercialism/consumerism, how does Michael portray this?

Do you think George Michael is truly breaking free from a commercialized pop star when he continues to release music within the culture industry?

PART II: "1979" The Smashing Pumpkins

The music video for "1979" by the Smashing Pumpkins, a popular 90s Rock song depicts the lives of suburban youth in the 1970s. It features a series of seemingly random and disconnected snapshots that capture the experiences of teenage life, including house parties, driving around town, and various interactions. The video conveys a sense of nostalgia and the carefree spirit of youth, emphasizing the themes of rebellion, friendship, and the search for identity. The visual style is characterized by a documentary-like approach, with a mix of intimate moments and energetic scenes, reflecting the diversity and complexity of youth culture, along with an idealization of being young. The scenes are depicted in snapshots like memories that fill the viewer with a sense of yearning for a time gone by. Overall, the video complements the song's themes and provides a visual narrative that resonates with the song's exploration of the teenage experience in 1979.

Fredric Jameson in his article “Postmodernism and Consumerist Society,” delves into the transformations in social, economic, and cultural realms instigated by postmodernism. It challenges the conventional idea of a 'post-industrial' phase and underscores the heightened dominance of capitalism. Jameson critiques the perspectives of thinkers like Daniel Bell, contending that capitalism has solidified its influence. The reading explores how shifts in capitalism's mode of production align with novel forms of cultural expression. It characterizes postmodernism in literature, music, film, and environments by its emphasis on surface, pastiche, and paranoia. Jameson examines pastiche in postmodernism, defining it as a neutral form of aestheticism devoid of parody's satirical impulse. This reflects a move towards stylistic diversity and heterogeneity. Additionally, he addresses the "death of the subject" in postmodernism, challenging the notion of unique personal identities and individualism as central tenets of classical modernism. Through this perspective, the music video for “1979”, complemented with the lyricism, engages with nostalgia coupled with an idealization of consumer culture associated with youth culture. For instance, the video features several scenes of teens driving in a vintage car (first seen at 0:0:23). The car is associated with teenage freedom and a sense of identity, leading to endless possibilities and activities that the teens take advantage of. It's also the very function of the fleeting nature of youth itself The suburban setting also provides an easy showcase for consumerist culture. According to Jameson, while talking about the movie Body Heat, he explains “One begins to realise after a while that the small town setting has a crucial strategic function: it allows the film to do without most of the signals and references which we might associate with the contemporary world, with consumer society - the appliances and artifacts, the high rises, the object world of late capitalism (170)” (1). All of the images shown throughout the video, the cars, the long streets to cruise, the band, and the parties are placed among a suburban setting, as the singer sits in the back of a car reflecting and longing for the image of a “simpler time”. This simplicity however, encourages the material exchange of money for experience, dimming the sense of uniqueness that is commodified by the feeling of youth. Thus, youth culture and consumer culture go hand in hand. Youths think that their experience is shaped by a series of unique memories, but really the subconscious influence of materialism is showcased right in front of their eyes. Overall, the video and lyrics depict a constructed, simulated representation of youth culture and nostalgia, reflecting the influence of media and cultural simulations on our perceptions of reality.

Gilles Deleuze's "Introduction: Difference and Repetition" provides a foundation for his philosophical exploration of difference and repetition. Deleuze challenges traditional philosophical concepts by emphasizing the primacy of difference over identity and repetition over representation. He critiques the way Western thought has historically focused on identity and homogeneity, arguing for the significance of diversity, multiplicity, and differentiation. Deleuze introduces the idea of "difference in itself" and explores how difference operates as a creative force, generating new possibilities and forms. He also investigates the concept of repetition, not as a mere duplication of the same but as a transformative and generative process to shape new meaning out of reproduction. The introduction sets the stage for Deleuze's intricate analysis of these themes throughout the rest of the work, challenging conventional philosophical paradigms and paving the way for his unique philosophical perspective. Deleuze's concept of repetition as a transformative process rather than a mere duplication resonates with the themes in "1979." The song and its video capture the repetition of certain experiences in youth culture, such as parties and social interactions. Deleuze's idea of repetition as a creative force that generates novelty. It’s important to note that the video and song was written in the year 1997, yet the video takes place, like the title suggests, in the year 1979. Thus, the video is a repetition of the representation of youth culture in the 1970s. Although not identical, this representation allows for interpretation of what this time period looked like, and develops new meaning from the spectatorship of the viewer. Deleuze emphasizes that repetition of signs, especially relating to the concept of the “self” are not what signs are, but rather their transformative properties of what they can become. Deleuze challenges fixed identities, and the music video portrays a fluid sense of identity within the youth culture it represents. The diverse scenes and interactions showcase a multiplicity of experiences and personalities, resonating with Deleuze's call for an understanding of identity that goes beyond rigid categories. Due to the diverse experiences in the music video, throwing chairs into the pool (0:2:35) and bowling with bottles in the grocery store (0:3:53), these ideas are representative of the heterogeneous culture centered around youth, though unified under one concept of being carefree. All in all, Gilles Deleuze's philosophical theory serves as a philosophical groundwork that challenges conventional notions of identity, emphasizing the transformative nature of difference and repetition. This resonates with the themes in the Smashing Pumpkins' "1979'' music video, where the repetition of youth experiences becomes a creative force generating new meanings. Despite the video being set in 1979, its repetition serves as a representation of the era, allowing for diverse interpretations and emphasizing Deleuze's idea that signs transform and generate novelty. The video's portrayal of fluid and heterogeneous identities aligns with Deleuze's call for understanding beyond rigid categories, showcasing a multiplicity of experiences within a unified concept of carefree youth culture. Through scenes of unconventional activities, the video captures the transformative properties of repetition, illustrating Deleuze's philosophy in the context of youth identity and cultural representation.

Jean Baudrillard's "Simulacra and Simulations" delves into the concept of hyperreality, where simulations and copies come to dominate and replace the original reality they represent. Baudrillard argues that in contemporary society, signs and symbols no longer point to an underlying reality but instead create a self-referential system. He introduces the idea of simulacra, which are copies without an original, and suggests that simulations have become more real and influential than the reality they mimic. Baudrillard explores the impact of media, technology, and consumer culture on shaping our perceptions, challenging traditional notions of reality and representation. The essay delves into the dissolution of boundaries between reality and simulation, questioning the authenticity of experiences and identities in a world increasingly saturated with signs and images. Putting this lens over the analysis of “1979”, a hyperreality is created by the setting of the music video. This simulation capitalizes off of the simplistic nature of youth and creates a feeling of nostalgia and longing for a carefree version of life. Even the lyrics suggest this love of a time gone by coupled with the dread of growing up. “That we don't even care as restless as we are. We feel the pull in the land of a thousand guilts. And poured cement (0:2:08)”. Baudrillard notes this certain draw towards simulations stating that “When the real is no longer what it used to be, nostalgia assumes its full meaning (153)” (2). The music video was made in the 1990s, but about the 1970s, emphasizing that the meaning of the song and music video is a means to cope with the loss of the carefree days of youth. Baudrillard would argue that the video is not a direct reflection of reality but a simulation created by media representations, contributing to the construction of a hyperreal youth culture. Baudrillard's concept of simulacra suggests that in a hyperreal world, identities become fluid and constructed, influenced by media and cultural simulations. The portrayal of youth in the video reflects a simulation of identity influenced by cultural representations rather than an authentic expression of individual experiences. The video itself follows snapshots of youths and experiences reminiscent of memories, from signs like parties to joyrides. However, the simulation created through the music video itself lacks depth, and is a generalization and idealization of youth culture rather than unique experiences. Baudrillard explained the nature of the hyperreal and simulacra, noting “It retains all the features, the whole discourse of traditional production, but it is nothing more than its scaled-down refraction (159)” (3). 

The video, set against the backdrop of suburban youth in the 1970s, becomes a centerpiece that showcases both an idealized past and a constructed representation of youth culture. Jameson's critique of postmodernism's emphasis on surface, pastiche, and the "death of the subject" resonates with the video's depiction of fragmented memories that present a shallow and idealized version of youth.

Deleuze's philosophy of difference and repetition aligns with the diverse and tokenized aspects of youth experiences depicted in the video. The repetition of the aura of the year 1979 becomes a creative force, generating new meanings and contributing to a fluid and heterogeneous sense of identity, specifically around youth culture.

Baudrillard's concept of hyperreality and simulacra further deepens the analysis. The video, portraying an idealized version of the 1970s, becomes a hyperreal simulation that blurs the boundaries between reality and representation. The nostalgia felt by the viewer is not for a historical reality but for a carefully constructed and simulated past.

Discussion Questions:

Can people who weren’t living in the 1970s still feel nostalgic about this time? Why or why not?

Are our experiences, especially in youth, a result of consumer culture, or is youth culture detached from consumerism?

Works Cited:

Jameson, Fredric, ““Postmodernism and Consumer Society”(New York, NY, Pearson Education Limited: 1992).

Baudrillard, Jean, “Simulacra and Simulations” (New York, NY, Pearson Education Limited: 1992).

Deleuze, Giles, "Introduction: Repetition and Difference" (New York, NY, Columbia University Press: 1994)

Sign—The Woman King

The use of the term sign is defined by Saussure as being the building blocks of language: “the only essential thing is the union of meanings and sound-images, and in which both parts of the sign are psychological (15)” (1). Signs are arbitrary meanings given to things in the world that are agreed upon by society for recognition. Signs have no real connection to the object in question, but are universally recognized as the meaning given to a particular object or concept. 

The Woman King poster features several women on the cover, with one standing out ahead of the others. All the women have focused and stern facial expressions and are adorned with gold jewelry and weapons. The woman in the front takes a striking pose and her position makes her look bigger than the others given the perspective. Kings throughout history are typically depicted as strong leaders and are the picture of power, both physically and fiscally. To display this, the sign for king is recognized as an individual who looks strong, is adorned with status, and looks ready to fight for the said kingdom. The Woman King featured on the poster has defined muscles, wears lots of jewelry, and looks ready to battle with her weaponry. Signs such as “king” are universally recognized by certain traits, which is why the movie poster conveys the concept of The Woman King very well. She is featured above her peers, boasting her status, and is the spotlight of detail given, with highly stylized definition and shining halo above her head from the sunrise.

(1) Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966, pg. 15.

Shot–Catch Me If You Can

According to Metz, a shot is a basic unit of film language, representing an uninterrupted sequence of frames taken by a single, continuous operation of the camera. Metz emphasized the shot as a fundamental building block in the cinematic narrative, considering it a visual and symbolic element that contributes to the overall meaning of a film. He describes this process of the narrative storytelling aspect of the shot: “the filmic shot is also the result of an ordering of several elements–for example, the different visual elements in the image— (75)” (2). The concept of the shot is means of expression for the central themes of the film.

The filmic shot featured on the movie poster for Catch Me If You Can is a shutter shot. The two characters on the poster are seen running, their figures blurred to emphasize motion. Although the movie isn’t specifically about motion, the significance of running emphasizes the importance of the movie’s central themes and main conflict. Just like Metz notes, the meaning of a shot is influenced not only by its visual content but also by its relationship to other shots and elements within the film. While Metz's primary focus is on visual elements, the inclusion of text on the poster is also important. The placement and style of text contribute to the overall composition and may guide the viewer's interpretation. Storytelling can be interpreted by audiences even through a single shot, it conveys meaning as an aid to the narrative. 

(2)  Christian Metz, “Some Points in the Semiotics of the Cinema”, New York: University Press, 2004, pg. 75.

Filmic Narrative–Talk to Me

Filmic Narrative, yet another concept explored by Metz, is the arrangement and organization of shots in a film to create a coherent and meaningful story. He argued that the narrative structure of a film is composed of smaller units, such as shots, which are akin to linguistic signs. These signs, when arranged in a specific order, generate a narrative that the audience interprets and understands. Metz writes the definition as “a coherent syntax (67)” (3). 

Talk to Me’s movie poster accomplishes filmic narrative through the storytelling aspects featured. The poster features a variety of scenes framed around each other. The scenes are dynamic in nature, showcasing multiple characters in the story, a frame of people in a studio, a microphone, and a government building. These “units” frame the narrative story of the film, cueing in the audience to the major plot points in the story while presenting an engaging and heartfelt concept. This cinematic language conveys the visual elements of the film while also picking out critical points in the story to show significance. Significance is also shown through the expressions of the people on the poster. The same man is shown twice, the first with a smiling expression, and the second with a more serious one, conveying story progression. Even the text on the poster, although a literal language, conveys the significance of the film and a description of the driving force behind the movie “Never underestimate a man who has something to say”. A simple yet powerful message, the phrase on the poster is setting up the story as one of an “underdog”, possibly a story of drive and success.

(3) Christian Metz, “Some Points in the Semiotics of the Cinema”, New York: University Press, 2004, pg. 67.

Diegesis–Geronimo

In Metz's framework, the term "diegesis" refers to the narrative world of the film. Elements that are part of the diegesis exist within the story's reality. These include characters, events, settings, and actions that are presented as part of the fictional universe created by the film. Diegetic elements are those that the characters within the story can perceive or interact with. “the sum of a film’s denotation: the narration itself, but also the fictional space and time dimensions implied in and by the narrative, and consequently the characters, the landscapes, the events, and other narrative elements, in so far as they are considered in their denoted aspect (68)” (4). 

Geronimo features several elements that illustrate the diegesis the film inhabits. The characters on the poster are dressed in a very specific time period with 2 of them sporting wide brimmed hats, similar to a cowboy. One person rides a horse, adorned with a rifle and a fur hat, while the other is dressed in some sort of military uniform. The figures are presented in portrait format aside from the man riding the horse, but all of them slightly fade to reveal the desert landscape in the background. This use of scenery and context clues through the clothing choices of the character reveals the fictional world the movie is set in. Diegesis in this form is crucial to making the narrative story believable to convey the messages sprinkled throughout the movie as well. These details indicate the setting and tone to set the scene for the story to unfold. 

(4) Christian Metz, “Some Points in the Semiotics of the Cinema”, New York: University Press, 2004, pg. 68.

Connotation–Poltergeist

Metz explores how signs, including those in films, carry not only denotative (literal) meanings but also connotative (cultural and associative) meanings. Connotation is the social, cultural and symbolic meanings given to a film, beyond the literal meaning it conveys on a surface level. In other words it, “plays a major role in all aesthetic languages, its significate is the literary or cinematographic “style,” “genre” (the epic, the western, etc.), “symbol” (philosophical, humanitarian, ideological, and so on), or “poetic atmosphere”—and its signifier is the whole denotated semiological material, whether signified or signifying (67)” (5). 

There are specific signs displayed on Poltergeist’s movie poster that classifies it into a connotated style accepted in society. In black and white, a girl is seen sitting down on the floor putting both of her hands on the white screen of a vintage television, surrounded by darkness all around. Beside her sits a doll, and above lies the words “They’re here”. All of these signs, the ambiguity of the quote, the vast darkness, the girl mysteriously sitting in front of the tv, contribute to the connotation, and therefore connection, to the horror genre. Metz explores how film uses various cinematic codes, such as lighting (the dark room) and camera angles (wide angle shot of the girl) to convey connotative meanings. The poster plays off of common fears of the dark, dolls, and televisions that don’t seem quite right, to signal to the audience of the nature of the film itself. Connotation is important in media to market to people’s tastes. By using widely accepted signs, movie promotions successfully display the content of the movie. 

(5) Christian Metz, “Some Points in the Semiotics of the Cinema”, New York: University Press, 2004, pg. 67.

Ideological State Apparatus: The ideological state apparatus is the process in which mediums such as education, media and religion dispense ideas to coerce people to accept their working class position. Marx and Althusser define this as, “a certain number of realities which present themselves to the immediate observer in the form of distinct and specialized institutions (92)”.(1)

The 2018 Super Bowl Tide Commercial features famous actor David Harbour as the spokesperson for the brand in the advertisement. The commercial opened with Harbour appearing in diverse yet familiar super bowl advertisement stereotypes. These quick snippets of ads ranged from beer commercials to car commercials. Throughout each scene, he would break the fourth wall, asserting that “It’s a tide commercial” in each because he brings attention to the impeccably clean clothes the actors wear. This strategic approach continues across the various scenes, emphasizing the notion that pristine clothing results from using the Tide detergent. This commercial connects back to the idea of the ideological state apparatus because not only does the ad use a notable figure like David Harbour to endorse the product to influence consumers, but the commercial also conforms to the expectations of viewers of the superbowl while artfully playing off of it to affirm expectations and incorporate humor. In other words, the commercial cleverly conforms to viewers’ expectations of super bowl ads while simultaneously subverting those expectations with humor, creating a memorable and engaging experience. This method of influencing the working class through media is a prime example of coercing buyers to purchase the product because the advertisement appeals to their admiration for primetime football commercials and the influence that celebrities have with their platforms. The commercial capitalizes on the viewers’ admiration for football and their engagement, as well as the authoritative power celebrities have on influencing the public. 

(1) Marx, Karl, and Frederick Engels. 2010. “The Ruling Class And The Ruling Ideas.” In The German Ideology, pg. 92. Vol. 5. N.p.: Lawrence & Wishart.

Dominant Hegemonic Position: This term refers to the group or ideology in power controlling political and economic structures while shaping prevailing cultural norms, values and beliefs. In terms of understanding messaging, Stuart Hall refers to this position as, “the ideal-typical case of ‘perfectly transparent communication’ (515)” (2). When the viewer understands and accepts the ideas of the prevailing class through messaging, it means the viewer is taking up the dominant hegemonic position.

Analysis: The Berlitz German Coast Guard commercial highlights the importance of proficiency in the English language. The commercial features a new German recruit who is stationed at the control center. He picks up a distress call from a ship that is sinking and needs assistance. However, due to the recruit’s poor proficiency in English, he misunderstands the urgent situation at hand. The ship’s distress signal calls out “We are sinking!”, while the recruit hilariously responds “What are you thinking about?”. The commercial ends with a bolded message that reads “Improve your English ''. Through the lens of the dominant hegemonic position, this commercial emphasizes the importance of effective communication through understanding language correctly, and the consequential danger of inaccurately encoding messages. By showing a critical situation where this mishap could occur, the commercial sends a strong message that proficiency in the dominant language of English is vital and necessary. Through a critical lens, this commercial is meant to explicitly state the ideals of the ruling class, and impose its worldview to maintain control of the narrative. By establishing English as the norm across the world, in this case Germany, the ruling class maintains their position with little to no pushback. Stuart Hall notes this dichotomy between reading a message exactly as it was encoded and meant to be interpreted like the dominant hegemonic position, or enveloping discourse around the topic, such as viewing pieces of media such as this through a critical lens. By viewing media through a critical lens, people challenge the ideas of dominant culture and rebel against established norms and power structures. 

(2) Hall, Stuart. “Encoding, Decoding.” Essay. In The Cultural Studies Reader, 2nd ed., pg. 515. Routledge, 2001. 

Culture Industry: Culture industry, coined by theorists Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheiner, refers to the mass production and mass distribution of cultural products such as music, films, television, literature, and other forms of entertainment in industrialized societies. All forms of media in kahoots with cultural production are shaped by economic and industrial forces. Horkheimer and Adorno define it as, “the present technology of the culture industry confines itself to standardization and mass production and sacrifices what once distinguished the logic of the work from that of society (95)” (3). 

Analysis: “Alexa Loses Her Voice” is a commercial by Amazon that premiered during the 2018 Super Bowl. The ad begins with Alexa, the amazon virtual assistant losing her voice. Then the scene points to Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos, who sets out on a mission to find voice replacements for Alexa. Throughout the commercial, different celebrities take on the role of Alexa. These people include Gordon Ramsay, Cardi B, Rebel Wilson, and Sir Anthony Hopkinsm each putting their own entertaining spin responding to the commands of the Amazon users. The ad highlights the duality of the Amazon Echo by comparing her capabilities to the limited, comedic responses of the celebrities who stepped in to replace the virtual assistant. This video is very reminiscent of the culture theory that Horkheimer and Adorno highlight in their piece. The promotion of the Amazon Alexa as a product relies on the individual personalities and brands of the celebrities' appearances within the advertisement. The “culture” that each individual has curated is used as a commodity to poke fun at familiar faces in the culture industry, and compare their inability to the versatility of the product being pushed to consumers. Furthermore, the culture industry is used to capitalize off of consumers by using the predictability of the celebrities to appeal to the masses. This process results in the creation of a formulaic and easily consumable product pushed by notable Jeff Bezos, also seen in the video. Although the commercial reflects the influence of cultural and artistic expression, it also is overshadowed by the economic considerations of the ad itself. Primetime positioning in a super bowl commercial spot, costing millions of dollars, but strategically appealing to many different demographics through the influence of celebrities and easily digestible format.

(3) Horkheimer, Max, and Theodor W. Adorno. “The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception.” Essay. In Dialectic of Enlightenment Philosophical Fragments, pg. 95. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2002.

Polysemy: Linguistic concept that denotes the capacity of a single word or sign to have multiple meanings and interpretations. Whether context-dependent/independent, they both share an underlying concept. Stuart Hall refers to the polysemic tendencies of connotations to be “transformations” depending on the decoding of media, but should not be confused with the concept of “pluralism” (4). 

Analysis: The Cadbury Dairy Milk “Gorilla” ad is an iconic and unconventional commercial that initially aired in the year 2007. The advertisement features a gorilla sitting behind a drum kit in the center of a lilac room. In the background plays “In the Air Tonight” by famous singer Phil Collins. The video starts zoomed up close to the gorilla’s face and slowly zooms out, eventually leading to an impressive drum solo performed by the gorilla. The commercial does a good job of building up anticipation, as the viewer is unsure initially what the purpose of the gorilla’s presence is. The symbol of the drumming gorilla captures viewers attention and creates a memorable association with the “joy” of eating Cadbury chocolate, the lilac color being introduced at the end as the screen fades to an image of a cadbury chocolate bar. The Cadbury ad utilizes the concept of polysemy as part of its advertising strategy. In this context, the gorilla is a representation symbolically and visually, containing multiple levels of meaning. The gorilla’s humorous situation can be a reflection of playfulness and joy. The unexpected sight of a gorilla performing a drum solo brings amusement to the viewer, also aligning with the quote at the end “A glass and a half full of joy”. Other meanings and interpretations can include surprise or uniqueness. This display leaves a lasting impression on viewers of the advertisement, possibly creating a conversation around the Cadbury name and differentiating it from competitors. All in all, the polysemic nature of the commercial creates a conversation based on interpretation due to the simplistic nature of the advertisement and limited messaging.

(4) Hall, Stuart. “Encoding, Decoding.” Essay. In The Cultural Studies Reader, 2nd ed., pg. 513. Routledge, 2001.

Ideology: Ideology is a system of representations and practices that shape the way people think and understand their social reality. Ideology in capitalistic society is used as a justification for the conditions of the working class, in order to keep the ruling class in power with little backlash. Althusser talks about ideology, as well as its connection to state apparatuses dispensed through the same forms. “the ability to manipulate the ruling ideology correctly for the agents of exploitation and repression, so that they, too, will provide for the domination of the ruling class ‘in words’ (88)” (5). 

Analysis: The Zazoo condom commercial takes place in a grocery store. The camera focuses first on a small child attempting to put chips into the grocery cart of his parent. The boy and his father go back and forth, putting the chips back and into the cart, until finally the child starts screaming loudly. This causes commotion in the store as the child throws a tantrum. The final scene focuses on the father, who looks completely regretful of his decision and overall checked out of the situation. Over the closeup of the father’s face comes the Zazoo condom logo along with the message “Use a condom”. This simple yet effective messaging ties into the use of ideology dispensed by the ruling class. Through the media, these messages are displayed to the working class to influence their thinking and decision making. The thought of a screaming child, a common occurrence in daily life, will remind them of the condom commercial and therefore the message “use a condom”. Ideology operates to shape individuals perceptions and beliefs to maintain the status quo and secure the reproduction of social structures within society. The ruling class is capitalizing off of these messages to influence buyers to purchase condoms, but also to urge them of the dangers if they don’t maintain the status quo. Commercials like these follow similar formats, first by showing the problem, and then a material solution to that problem. All in all, the ruling class proposes immediate and material fixes to problems that may pertain to the viewer, but have now convinced them it is one that needs to be rectified through the purchasing of a product.

(5)  Althusser, Louis. 2006. “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes towards an Investigation).” In The Anthropology of the State, pg. 88. N.p.: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Bibliography

(1) Marx, Karl, and Frederick Engels. 2010. “The Ruling Class And The Ruling Ideas.” In The German Ideology, Vol. 5. N.p.: Lawrence & Wishart.

(2) Hall, Stuart. “Encoding, Decoding.” Essay. In The Cultural Studies Reader, 2nd ed. Routledge, 2001. 

(3) Horkheimer, Max, and Theodor W. Adorno. “The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception.” Essay. In Dialectic of Enlightenment Philosophical Fragments. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2002.

(4) Hall, Stuart. “Encoding, Decoding.” Essay. In The Cultural Studies Reader, 2nd ed. Routledge, 2001.