#cellular immunity

Competing interests R.G.J. reports consultancy fees in past three years from: AbbVie, AdAlta, Apollo Therapeutics, Arda Therapeutics, Astra Zeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Chiesi, Cohbar, Contineum Therapeutics, Galecto, GlaxoSmithKline, Mediar Therapeutics, Ono, Orion, RedX, Syndax, Pliant and PureTech; and lecture fees from: AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Chiesi, Gilead and Roche. He is…

Nature Reviews Immunology, Published online: 02 April 2026; doi:10.1038/s41577-026-01298-y Neutralizing antibodies are widely viewed as the frontline of antiviral defence. Yet emerging evidence reveals that T cells can terminate infection before it is detectable by routine clinical assays, independently of antibodies. Recognizing this capacity reframes correlates of protection and calls for…

Nature Immunology, Published online: 16 September 2025; doi:10.1038/s41590-025-02284-7 CD4+ T follicular helper (TFH) cells that develop in response to a range of pathogens share aspects of a common gene signature. However, cytokine environments, rather than pathogen class, shape diversity in programming potential. Summary A Nature Immunology study (published Sept 16, 2025) reveals that while…

Nature Immunology, Published online: 29 July 2025; doi:10.1038/s41590-025-02201-y TGFβ-mediated signals enable CD8+ T cells to establish tissue-residence. IL-4 and PD-1 are each connected to TGFβ signaling to regulate the formation of CD8+ T cell tissue residence in skin. Summary A Nature Immunology study published July 29, 2025, reveals that TGFβ signaling is crucial for CD8+ T cells to become…

Nature Immunology, Published online: 23 July 2025; doi:10.1038/s41590-025-02208-5 Here Zhu et al. investigate the ontogeny of type 2 dendritic cells (DC2s) in mice. Using Klf4 expression to distinguish conventional DC precursors from plasmacytoid DCs, they identify two pre-DC2 populations with their development controlled by TCF4 and KLF4 that give rise to DC2A and DC2B cells. Summary Zhu et al.…

Nature Immunology, Published online: 24 June 2025; doi:10.1038/s41590-025-02198-4 McGavern and colleagues identified a CD8+ T cell population that expresses GZMK in ʽtau-richʼ brains, where it may play a protective role against neurodegeneration. Summary McGavern et al. report a novel finding in Nature Immunology: a specific population of CD8+ T cells expressing the enzyme Granzyme K (GZMK) is…

Innovations in Vaccine Design and Immunology: A Comprehensive Review

Introduction

Vaccination has been one of the most integral elements of public health for so many years, which greatly reduced the burden of infectious diseases. Rapid progress in science and technology has brought along innovative changes in the designs of vaccines, changing immunology. This article focuses on recent developments that were brought forward through contributions from microbiology, virology, and cell biology.

Vaccine Innovations: Development and Review Articles

The last few review articles on vaccine development have indicated that over the past decade there was a trend away from the conventional vaccines toward next-generation vaccines. From the live-attenuated and inactivated vaccines it led to novel approaches such as recombinant subunit vaccines, mRNA vaccines, and viral vector vaccines. Such breakthroughs in genetic engineering and immunological understanding have been driving these advances.

Key innovations include:

mRNA Vaccines This employs synthetic messenger RNA, able to instruct cells to produce antigens that induce the proper immune response.

Nanoparticle-based vaccines: nanoparticles with application for improved delivery and antigens stabilizing to attain better immune responses.

Personalized Vaccines: Vaccines designed according to the genetic identity of an individual to tackle diseases.

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Contributions from Microbiology case reports and publications

Vaccine design requires a significant input from microbiology, because the knowledge of pathogenic mechanisms of microorganisms helps to identify the targets for the vaccine. The recent microbiology case reports have shed light on pathogen-host interactions, antigenic variability, and antibiotic resistance, which are useful in vaccine strategy.

Staphylococcus aureus vaccine development: Recent studies involving the virulence factors and immune evasion of S. aureus lead to promising antigens for vaccine development. 

Tuberculosis Research: Advances in understanding Mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenesis have motivated the development of enhanced vaccines such as M72/AS01E.

Virology Research Articles and Blogs

Rapid progress has been achieved in vaccine development through research in virology regarding the newly emerging and re-emerging viral threats. Publications and blogs abound regarding breakthroughs against viruses, like SARS-CoV-2, HIV, and influenza.

Notable findings include:

COVID-19 Vaccines: The mRNA vaccines (Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna) are the epitome of integrating virology research with vaccine innovation through rapid development and deployment.

HIV VACCINE CHALLENGESDespite having passed decades since its identification, the highly mutating nature of HIV still poses a challenge and thus demands the development of broadly neutralizing antibodies.

Universal Influenza Vaccines: Epitopes of the virus are conserved and targeted and vaccines could be designed that provides long-term immunity against most strains of influenza.

Immunology Publications and Blogs

Immunology research underpins mechanisms through which vaccines provide protection. This has made publications and blogs available, including those on topics like immune memory, optimization of adjuvants, and T-cell activation.

Highlights include:

New adjuvants are AS03 and MF59. They act in the modulation of innate as well as adaptive immune response for better vaccine efficacy.

T-Cell-Based Vaccines: An understanding of the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response has driven vaccines for intracellular infections, including malaria and certain malignancies.

Immune evasion mechanisms: Informed vaccine design based on the mechanism of immune avoidance by pathogen

Cell Biology Journals: Contributions to Vaccine Design

Cell biology journals have offered critical insights pertaining to the cellular processes, whose importance informs vaccine development. Particular areas related 

to antigen processing and presentation, signal transduction, and the cell response to vaccination have emerged more frequently.

For example:

Dendritic Cells as Vaccine Targets: Exploiting dendritic cells to present antigens directly to T-cells has been a focus of cancer vaccine research.

Cellular Uptake Mechanisms: Knowing how cells internalize nanoparticles will help design effective vaccine delivery systems.

Conclusion

The synergy between microbiology, virology, immunology, and cell biology has catalysed innovations in vaccine design. The integration of interdisciplinary research continues to enhance our ability to combat infectious diseases, paving the way for personalized and universally effective vaccines. As highlighted in review articles, newsletters, blogs, and research publications, the future of vaccinology is poised for unprecedented advancements.

References