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War of Jenkins' Ear: How One Man's Ear Started a Colonial War Between Empires

The War of Jenkins' Ear (1739-1748) was a colonial conflict fought between Great Britain and Spain, primarily in the Caribbean and off the coast of South America. Looking to protect its interests in the West Indies, Britain provoked a war with Spain, one of its biggest colonial rivals, citing the mistreatment of one Captain Robert Jenkins, who was detained – and allegedly mutilated – by Spanish coast guards as they searched his ship for smuggled goods. In 1739, British Vice Admiral Edward Vernon sailed a fleet into the Caribbean, where he won some victories before his eventual defeat at the Battle of Cartagena de Indias in 1741. After that climactic battle, the war fizzled out as the British soon had their hands full with other conflicts, such as the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) in Europe and King George's War (1744-1748) in North America.

Background

Since the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), the European colonial powers in North America had enjoyed a relative period of peace. This was largely the work of Sir Robert Walpole, the leading British politician of the day, who became prime minister in 1721. Walpole and his Whig government believed that the British Empire would profit more from avoiding wars, both on the continent and overseas. Without the burdensome cost of military upkeep, Walpole was able to lower taxes while simultaneously working to pay off the national debt, with a sinking fund. Though many celebrated this pacifist policy, it was opposed by the Tories in Parliament, who feared that a non-combative Britain would soon fall behind its rivals, particularly in the Americas. The French, for example, were steadily expanding their influence in the West Indies, growing rich off their sugar plantations there. Should French meddling in the region go unopposed, then France would surely dominate the lucrative West Indies trade, at the expense of Britain's imperial interests. For these reasons, the Tories demanded a show of military force before it was too late.

But even the hawkish Tories were aware that a direct war with France could lead to a long and costly struggle. Instead, they decided to assert their influence in the West Indies by picking on another target they deemed to be weaker: Spain. For centuries, the Spanish had dominated commerce in the West Indies with a trade network connected by four major ports: Veracruz, Portobelo, Cartagena de Indias, and Havana. But Spain's overseas empire was not as powerful as it once was and was viewed by the British as bloated, decadent, and ripe for the taking. Britain's hostility towards Spain was also fueled by an anti-Catholic, anti-Spanish stereotype called the 'Black Legend', in which Spaniards were painted as cruel and greedy brutes. For these reasons, the Tories clamored for a war with Spain, both to assert British dominance in the West Indies and to send a message to France by beating up its weaker ally. The Spanish, for their part, were not blind to Britain's expansionist desires and spent the period of peace watching the other colonial power with unease. Their suspicions seemed confirmed when, in 1732, the British founded a new colony, Georgia, right on the doorstep of Spanish Florida, increasing tensions on the mainland as well.

Amidst all these rising tensions, Britain and Spain continued to trade in the West Indies. However, Spanish ports often imposed high tariffs on their goods, leading to an increase in smuggling. British smugglers would load up on Caribbean goods, particularly sugar, and take them to the Thirteen Colonies, where these luxuries were always in high demand. To crack down on such practices, the Spanish coast guard often patrolled the Caribbean Sea, stopping and searching any British vessel suspected of carrying contraband.

On 9 April 1731, a Spanish coast guard ship stopped one such vessel, the Rebecca, which had taken on quantities of sugar in Jamaica and was now bound for London. As the Spanish sailors searched the Rebecca, they detained its crew, including the captain, Robert Jenkins. Jenkins, according to his own disposition and some other accounts, was tied to the ship's mast with a rope around his neck and was hoisted into the air three times. The Spanish captain then sliced Jenkins's left ear with his cutlass, which was then torn off by another Spanish sailor. After threatening to treat King George II of Great Britain (reign 1727-1760) in the same manner, the Spaniards then left the Rebecca, returned to their own ship, and sailed off.

The Rebecca continued on to London, where the one-eared Jenkins proceeded to tell his story to all who would listen. The story made some traction and was reported in several newspapers – including the Pennsylvania Gazette, edited by an up-and-coming Benjamin Franklin – but the scandal did not fully break until 1738. That year, Jenkins was granted an audience with the Privy Council and even appeared before King George II himself. According to one – likely apocryphal – version of events, Jenkins presented the king with his severed ear pickled in a jar as proof of his sorrowful mistreatment. Jenkins' tale outraged the British public, seeming to confirm their 'Black Legend' prejudices regarding Spanish cruelty. The Tories gained ground in Parliament, politicizing the incident to paint Walpole's Whig government as weak. In March 1739, Parliament passed a vote formally asking the king to seek redress from Spain, on behalf of both Jenkins and other British merchants who claimed to have been similarly mistreated. After Spain refused Britain's demands for restitution, George II declared war on 15 June 1739, an act that was ratified by Parliament four months later.

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Guerra del Asiento: Cómo la oreja de un hombre empezó una guerra colonial entre imperios

La guerra del Asiento (1739-1748) fue un conflicto colonial peleado entre Gran Bretaña y España principalmente en el Caribe y frente a las costas de Sudámerica. Buscando proteger sus intereses en las Indias Occidentales, Gran Bretaña provocó una guerra con España, una de sus principales rivales en las colonias, citando el mal trato de un tal capitán Robert Jenkins, quien fue detenido y supuestamente mutilado por los guardias costeros españoles, mientras buscaban su barco para mercancías de contrabando. En 1739, el vicealmirante Edward Vernon zarpó con una flota hacia el Caribe donde ganó algunas victorias antes de su derrota en la batalla de Cartagena de Indias en 1741. Después de esa batalla culminante, la guerra fracasó porque los británicos pronto tuvieron sus manos ocupadas con otros conflictos como la guerra de sucesión austríaca (o guerra de la Pragmática Sanción, 1740-1748) en Europa y la guerra del rey Jorge (1744-1748) en América del Norte.

Guerre de l’Oreille de Jenkins: Comment l'oreille d'un homme a déclenché une guerre coloniale entre empires

La guerre de l'oreille de Jenkins (1739-1748) fut un conflit colonial qui opposa la Grande-Bretagne et l'Espagne, principalement dans les Caraïbes et au large des côtes sud-américaines. Soucieuse de protéger ses intérêts dans les Antilles, la Grande-Bretagne provoqua une guerre contre l'Espagne, l'un de ses plus grands rivaux coloniaux, en invoquant les mauvais traitements infligés au capitaine Robert Jenkins, qui avait été arrêté - et prétendument mutilé - par les garde-côtes espagnols alors qu'ils fouillaient son navire à la recherche de marchandises de contrebande. En 1739, le vice-amiral britannique Edward Vernon mena une flotte dans les Caraïbes, où il remporta quelques victoires avant d'être finalement vaincu lors de la bataille de Carthagène des Indes en 1741. Après cette bataille décisive, la guerre prit fin, les Britanniques étant bientôt accaparés par d'autres conflits, tels que la guerre de Succession d'Autriche (1740-1748) en Europe et la guerre du roi George (alias Troisième Guerre intercoloniale américaine, 1744-1748) en Amérique du Nord.

The hero Don Blas de Lezo y Olavarrieta

BLAS DE LEZO Y OLAVARRIETA (II)

Previously I have said that the British started to celebrate the plight of the Spanish stronghold of Cartagena de Indias….before having positively conquered the place! Yes, although Don Blas de Lezo still had the leg up (no joke intended!) he still was not defeated and, therefore, refused to surrender to the British naval and land forces. Due to a supreme heroism not seen for a long time in world history, the fort keeping the Spanish forces held up the attacks of the invaders and Don Blas could repel wave after wave of constant, unremitting attack on the part of the British.

Corpses piled up in the streets but also a most terrible plague was starting to develop its wings: ailments such as dysentery, malaria and cholera were rampant among the British and so, every day fighting saw weaker and more vulnerable British troops felling like dry wood waiting to be chopped by the axe man. Admiral Vernon ordered another last-ditch assault on the night of the 20 April. Jamaican machete-wielding forces (mostly slaves) were to lead the attack that will soon be repelled by the well-positioned Spanish forces that shot at these irregular troops which were little more than sitting ducks. A Spanish counter-attack ordered by Don Blas de Lezo achieved the death of more than 800 British men, near 1,000 taken prisoner, and Vernon’s ships full of sick and wounded.

Though several assaults will ocntinue during the following days, the British forces were doomed already: nothing could have changed the path of failure in which Vernon’s forces were engulfed by now: sickness everywhere, desertions and, what was worse among two military leaders: ineptitude and inability to reach a common consensus on what tactics to follow to conquest Cartagena. In the wake of this disastrous policy, Admiral Vernon’s ships would set sail and withdraw on the 20 of May to Jamaica. Did he succeed? Well, obviously his expedition was an utter failure and more than 18,000 men would die between tropical sickness and the losses suffered in the hands of a well-positioned Spanish minimal troop that was available to defend the town and its environments.

King George II never allowed the details of such disastrous expeditions be known to his Majesty’s subjects, even though Admiral Vernon would be welcomed home a hero (and he is buried at Westminster Abbey, too!).

Sadly for the Spanish interests, our local hero, Don Blas de Lezo y Olavarrieta would die later in September after being unable to recover from the serious wounds sustained during the Cartagena de Indias’ attack…but the legend of one of Spain’s most unknown military men has already started to be talked about in his native land and, were he an English buccaneer or a brilliant American tactician, it is sure that a lot of flicks would have already been produced telling his story to the wide public. Something to make us think about!