प्रज्ञा

From: Photographs of Western India William Johnson 1850-1859; 1860-1869 Source: Southern Methodist University's DeGoyler's Library

"Smartha Brahmins" (Hindu)

"Sadhus of Gujarat" (Hindu)

"Vallabhacharya Maharajas" (Pushti Marg)

"Parsee Priests" (Zoroastrianism)

"Bene Israel Priests" (Judaism)

"Assyrian Jews" (Judaism)

"Khojas" (Islam)

From: Embodying the Formless: Spiritual Practice in the Nath Sampraday

Photography: Sriram Sabhapathy Curation and Captions: Kartikay Khetarpa Source: Sahapedia

The Nāth Sampradāya today comprises an order of renunciate ascetics and a householder caste, both of which trace their lineages to a group of nine Nāth gurus headed by Ādinātha (“First Nāth”), who is identified with the god Śiva. Next in most lists of nine Nāths comes Matsyendranātha, followed by Goraksanātha (Gorakhnāth), who is ̣ said to have founded the Nāth order of ascetics. he earliest references to the Nāth ascetic order as an organized entity date to the beginning of the 17th century, but its irst historical gurus, Matsyendranātha and Goraksanātha, lived much earlier, probably in the 9th and 12th centuries, respectively, and during the intermediate period there are numerous references to both ascetic and householder Nāths in texts, inscriptions, iconography, and historical reports.

"An idol of Gorakhnath at the Jwalamukhi Shaktipeeth in Himachal Pradesh. Perhaps the most important figure in the tradition, Gorakhnath features in many popular Hindu legends. According to one such story, which is often connected to the origin of the sampraday, he is said to have ‘saved’ his guru Matsyendranath (who is believed to have been a direct disciple of Shiva) from the land of women where he gets entangled in worldly pursuits. Gorakhnath, his disciple, eventually rescues him and exhorts him to return to his original renunciant condition, setting up the Nath sampraday in the process."

"A Nath yogi at the Shri Gorakshnath Mandir (Barah Panth Dalicha) at Pushkar. Pushkar is an important center for the Naths with separate mathas for both the ascetic as well as the householder branch of the sampraday. A mela or festival is organized here every year on the Kartik Purnima (full moon of the Kartik month of the Hindu calendar) which is attended by hundreds of Nath ascetics travelling from all parts of the country."

"Shrines to local folk deities at a Nath matha in Pokhran. Nath mathas can either be panchayati (communal) or niji (private). The panchayati mathas are centres for the ramta ascetics to congregate on festivals of importance and for elections of leaders. They are much fewer in number in comparison to the niji mathas which generally come up around the figure of charismatic Nath ascetics and have an independent mode of functioning. In Rajasthan, apart from gurus and deities associated with the Nath sampraday, such mathas also often house shrines dedicated to local heroes and folk deities."

A depiction of the Navnaths and the 84 siddhas at the Guru Gorakhnath-ji matha in Myajlar (Jaisalmer). The Navnaths are revered alongside the 84 siddhas (an archetype that in some sense symbolizes all individuals who are able to achieve spiritual perfection in their lifetime).

"A defining attribute of Nath ascetics are the large round earrings that many of them wear. Also known as the darshan mudra or kundal, these earrings are worn through the cartilage (not the lobe) and can be made of wood, horn, gold, silver or any other material preferred by the yogi. The ear-splitting ritual is performed only after a Nath initiate has spent considerable time as an apprentice. Comparable to a second birth, it is also treated as testimony to the initiate’s spiritual perfection.'

"A Nath yogi working on preparing the seli."

"The Naths in Rajasthan are said to have sustained a flourishing relationship with royalty who often bestowed land grants and other munificient giftson them in regard for their supernatural powers. The lavish interior of the Mahamandir is an indication of this."

"This is also the time when the ramta Nath ascetics travel to the temple. Hundreds of them gather at the Gorakh Dibbi which is a separate section of the temple governed by the Naths. A special religious ceremony is performed here at this time of the year."

"A Manganiyar family in Kanoi (Jaisalmer) sings from their repertoire of Nath bhajans. Bhajans and kirtans are an important part of the devotional life of the Naths. In Rajasthan, while Nath bards themselves perform the epic tales of their ascetics, heroes and kings, on many occasions other communities, including the Muslim Manganiyars, are also invited to Nath gatherings and mathas to sing from their repertoires, which can relate either to the Nath sampraday specifically or to the larger nirgun bhakti tradition in the region."

From: Celebration of Faith: Play, Performance and Pleasure on the Wari Photography: Kamesh Bharadwaj Curations and Captions: Kartikay Khetarpal Source: Sahapedia

"Varkari can refer to an individual or group who undertakes a pilgrimage to the temple of Lord Vithoba or Vitthala in the town of Pandharpur in the western Indian state of Maharashtra. Lord Vithoba himself, and the pilgrimage to Pandharpur can, in many respects, be considered the most important, popular deity and pilgrimage in Maharashtra. Indeed, in some manner, the pilgrimage itself defines the idea of Maharashtra as a distinct region as pilgrim processions from the different cities and towns converge on this sacred center."

"Some Warkaris carry small idols of Vitthal and Rukmini on their shoulders as they walk towards Pandharpur."

"Be it night or day, the Warkaris frequently come together to sing the abhangas or devotional poems of the many sant-kavis revered in their tradition."

"The Vasudeos are a community of mendicants who roam the streets of Pandharpur seeking alms and singing bhajans in the praise of Vitthal."

"The Dyaneshwar Maharaj Mandir in Pandharpur is the place where the Dyaneshwar palkhi rests for the five days that it will stay in the town before on the day of the upcoming Purnima (full moon) when it starts making its way back to Alandi like all the other palkhis."

"The 16th-century sant-kavi Eknath wrote hundreds of such drama-poems. Many are in the voice of Mahals, as well as women and Muslims. Some are spiritual allegories."

From: Sustaining Faith: Text and Tradition in the Dadu Panth Photograph: Sriram Sabhapathy Curation and captioning: Kartikay Khetarpal Source: Sahapedia

"Dadu Dayal was a 16th-century sant who founded the Dadu panth, a religious tradition, today based largely in Rajasthan. A biographical account of his life is given in the Dadu Janamlila, composed shortly after his death in 1603 by a disciple named Jan Gopal. According to this, Dadu was born in Ahmedabad to a Muslim dhuniya (cotton-carder), found enlightenment at an early age helped by an old master (Baba Buddha), and travelled to various parts of present-day Rajasthan spreading his message of love and devotion and attracting a large body of followers. "

"A typical depiction of Dadu Dayal at the Dadu dham in Naraina."

"The Dadu Vani with an image of Dadu Dayal in the background at the Dadu Vani Temple in Amer (Jaipur). More than any image, it is the text of the Dadu Vani that is revered by the Dadupanthis. It is placed at the centre of all their shrines."

"Mahant Ramchandradas Dadupanthi at the Dadu Vani Temple in Amer (Jaipur) holds a pair of sandals that are believed to have been worn by Dadu Dayal. Objects associated with Dadu Dayal are preserved and worshipped in a few Dadu dwaras."

"The Naraina dham like other Dadu dwaras contains several padukas or symbols of the footprints of Dadu as well as the various leaders of the panth. The padukas are one of the ways in which devotees fulfil the need to have a tangible object to pray to in a tradition that shuns idol worship."

"An underground room in the Naraina dham known as the Bhajan Gufa (literally, meditation cave) contains the padukas and certain other relics associated with Garib Das who was the eldest son and the first successor of Dadu Dayal in terms of heading the panth."

"Women devotees at the Dadu dham in Bhairana. Gathered from his poetry, Dadu’s attitude towards women is ambivalent at best. While Dadu would, like Kabir, often employ the trope of the virahini (an archetype in the mystical poetry of the subcontinent) and speak in the voice of a women pining for her beloved in many his poems, his poetry would also often equate the figure of the woman with maya (illusion) or that which ensnares a person into worldly pursuits taking him away from his spiritual goal. Even in the panth, one only sees women in the role of a devotee and never in any official position."

Dadupanthi ascetics would scribe beautiful manuscripts that they would use for their own reference and later pass on to their disciples. Naraina preserves several such gutkas (manuscripts).

"A miniature copy of the Quran kept at the Naraina dham. Dadu’s Muslim birth, though mentioned in Jan Gopal’s account, has been sought to be suppressed as the panth has increasingly become Vaishanvised over the years. The overall attitude of the panth however, still remains largely non-sectarian."

"A large Dadu Vani manuscript preserved at Naraina. Even the earliest compilers of the Dadu Vani would meticulously classify Dadu’s sakhis (verses written in a particular meter) into different angas (chapters) according to the specific themes that they were addressing. Satgur mahima (glory of the true guru), biraha (separation), maya (illusion) and man (mind) were only some of the prominent themes to feature in these texts. The shabdas or hymns of Dadu would be presented along with the particular raga in which they were to be sung."

From: In memory of Greater Iran: Zoroastrians of Navsari Photography and captions: Sarah Jabbari Source: Sahapedia

" 'God is one' is a common idea among Parsis of India, therefore religious icons from non-Zoroastrian religions are also kept in their house and workplace. A sticker of Farre Kiyani (top) share space with Laskhmi (bottom), the Hindu goddess of wealth and prosperity. The symbol of Farre Kiyani (also referred to as ‘Fravahar’ in Iran and India) is a depiction of divine protection of God on people through the wise righteous king. The symbol is very ancient and has been represented in the art of the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE) and is widely used as a symbol of national identity among modern Iranian people and symbol of religious identity among Parsis of India."

"Mobed Ayush Sharukh Desai offering prayers as part of his initiation to priesthood. Sharukh is from the Desai family of priests, who occupy a high status in the Parsi society at Navsari. The fire-holder in which the sacred fire is held is called Afargan, and it must be placed on a marble stone. Sandalwood is usually burnt in the Afargan and a small diya is also lit next to it. During the ceremony, priests cover their mouth to avoid contamination of the fire. Even the hair must be entirely covered by wearing a turban or a skull cap, because in Zoroastrianism, fallen hair is considered impure."

"Priests doing the Jashan ceremony at the house of Mrs Keshmira, for blessings of the family members. The word Jashan is a latter form of the word ‘yasna’ which means veneration. Jashan is a simple ceremony, can be held on any day of the year. In this ritual, Ahura Mazda, the Fravashis, Daham Yazad and Sarosh Yazad are invoked by the recitation of certain prayers. Participation in a Jashan ritual by Zoroastrians is considered as an act of great merit."

"The marriage union is called Payvand-e-Zanshooi, meaning the union of matrimony. A couple of Zoroastrian priest, one from the bride’s side and one from the groom’s side, perform the rituals on the day of the wedding. The priests face the couple, and family members form a circle around them while Avesta prayers are recited and rice thrown on the couple. All participants must be standing during the ceremony which takes about one hour, and all heads must be covered. Non-Zoroastrian or a Parsi without sudra and kushti or without hair covering are not allowed to stand in the circle."The marriage union is called Payvand-e-Zanshooi, meaning the union of matrimony. A couple of Zoroastrian priest, one from the bride’s side and one from the groom’s side, perform the rituals on the day of the wedding. The priests face the couple, and family members form a circle around them while Avesta prayers are recited and rice thrown on the couple. All participants must be standing during the ceremony which takes about one hour, and all heads must be covered. Non-Zoroastrian or a Parsi without sudra and kushti or without hair covering are not allowed to stand in the circle."

"The white bull is considered a sacred animal in Zoroastrianism; in Gujarati it is called Varasyaji. The bull is kept at the Doongerwadi because the urine (Taro) of this virgin bull is used in ritual cleansing of the dead body during funerary rites. The Varasyaji is an albino, hence very rare to find. The bull must be completely white, without even one black hair. Even the eye lashes and tail hair is white. According to Zoroastrian mythology, Varasyaji is a representation of Gava-ayok-daat, which is the first animal created by Ahura Mazda. It got killed by the Devil, Ahreeman, but many other animals, plants and minerals were created out of its dead body. It is born as the Pesh Ruwan (spiritual leader) of the animal kingdom."

The Saptarṣis

“Master of Pahari painting at the court of Mankot (attr.), c. 1675–1700. Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh.” Image and text from: Ardor (2010)- Roberto Calasso

“The hymns of the Ṛgveda were said to have been seen by the ṛṣis. The ṛṣis may therefore be described as “seers.” They saw the hymns in the same way as we see a tree or a river. They were the most disconcerting, least easily explainable beings in the Vedic cosmos. Chief among them were the Saptarṣis, the Seven who lived in the stars of the Great Bear, who have some affinity with the Seven Greek Sages, with the Islamic abdāls, and with the Seven Akkadian Apkallus of the Apsu. But something in the very nature of the ṛṣis was an epistemological scandal: they alone were allowed to belong to the unmanifest and at the same time take part in the events of everyday life, which they secretly ruled.”

An illustrated Videvdad Sadah

Yazd, Iran; 1647 Copied by Mihrbān son of Anūshīrvān son of Bahrām Shāh Source: The British Library

"Burjorji Ashburner was a successful Bombay merchant, a Freemason, and a member of the Bombay Asiatic Society. He was also a member of the Committee of Management for one of the most important Zoroastrian libraries in Bombay, the Mulla Firuz Library and made a special point of having copies made of some of the rarer items. In April 1864 Burjurji wrote offering some 70 to 80 volumes as a gift to the Royal Society, London, promising to add additional ones:

In the course of antiquarian researches...with special reference to the Parsee religion, I have had the good fortune to obtain some valuable ancient manuscripts in Zend, Pehlui, and Persian. I do not wish to keep to myself what may be useful in the literary world. [1]

His collection consisted of standard Arabic and Persian works in addition to nineteen specifically Zoroastrian manuscripts in Persian, Avestan and Pahlavi. A number of Bujorji’s manuscripts came originally from Iran. The oldest is an illustrated copy of the Videvdad sādah which was copied in Yazd, Iran, in 1647. Whereas Zoroastrian manuscripts are generally unillustrated except for small devices such as verse dividers and occasional diagrams, this one, exceptionally, contains seven coloured drawings of trees, used as chapter headings not unlike Islamic manuscripts of the same period.

Gandau: Funerary Sculptures of the Kalasha

Chitral District, Pakistan 1895; 1915-1916 Source: The British Museum

Family of the High Priest of the Samaritans

Photos from The Samaritans: A Biblical People (2022); edited by: Steven Fine

Illuminated Gospels

Ethiopia, Amhara Region late 14th- early 15th century Source: The Met

Vallabhacharya's Vision on the Bank of the Yamuna

Nathdwara, Rajasthan; Circa 1850 Source: Christie's

The Worship of Gokulchandramaji

Kankroli, Rajasthan; Circa 1810 Source: Christie's