Lizardmantis

Bees of the family Megachilidae typically build their nests in the gaps and crevices in tree stumps, rocks, plant stems, and wooden structures, but there are a few species that prefer to nest in discarded snail shells. Most of these shell-nesting bees are found in Europe, North Africa, and the Near East; a few can also be found in North America, South Africa, and Japan.

Above: just some cozy little mason bees

These are solitary bees, meaning that they don't form colonies or live together in hives, so each female builds her own individual nest. The nest is constructed as a series of brood cells, and each cell contains a single egg with enough pollen and nectar to sustain the larva until it reaches adulthood.

Shell-nesting mason bees are known to exist in at least five different genera, including Osmia, Hoplitis, Rhodanthidium, Wainia, and Protosmia.

Above: Osmia spinulosa and Rhodanthidium septemdentatum, both of which build their nests in snail shells

When the female is ready to nest, she carefully selects a shell and then drags it into a shaded or well-hidden spot. Moving the shell is no easy feat, but she clings to it with her hind legs and pulls herself along by grabbing objects with her mandibles. A single bee may travel like that for several meters before finally settling on the right spot to prepare her nest.

Above: a mason bee dragging her shell into position

This article describes how the nest is then constructed:

The bee begins to build its nest, mainly within the “whorl” or spire of the shell. A typical nest consists of a few chambers (about two or four in number, depending on the size of the shell) known as cells, the walls of which consist of masticated leaf pulp known as leaf mastic. When fresh, the colour of this material is bright green, but with time, it assumes a brownish or black colour. Each cell is provisioned with a mixture of pollen and nectar, an egg is laid on this, and the cell sealed with further leaf mastic.

Above: two nests with their internal structures partially exposed, revealing the brood cells, larvae, pollen/nectar, and several layers of debris

The layout of the nest varies depending on the species, with some bees producing brood cells that are arranged into rows, while others create clustered or overlapping cells.

Above: the nest of a gold-fringed mason bee

The female must make dozens of trips just to gather the provisions for a single brood cell, and completing the entire nest can take days.

Once the brood chambers have been constructed and provisioned, the entrance to the shell is "bricked up" with several layers of plant pulp, soil, pebbles, and shell fragments. In some cases, the female will also apply patches of plant pulp to the outer surface of the shell as a way to provide camouflage.

Above: mason bees sealing their nests with plant pulp

The completed nest is then carefully maneuvered so that the entrance faces the ground. Some females will conceal the nest beneath a pile of twigs, pine needles, and plant stems, weaving moss and blades of grass throughout the pile. All of the debris is carefully selected, positioned, and then "glued" together with saliva, forming a tangled, tent-like structure over the nest.

Above: Osmia bicolor, commonly known as the red-tailed mason bee. constructing a protective thatch over her nest

In other cases, the female will conceal the nest by creating a small hole in the sand and then dragging the shell into it, ensuring that the nest is partially buried.

Above: Osmia aurulenta and Osmia rufohirta

This is just one of the many peculiar nesting habits that can be found among solitary bees. Several other examples have been featured in my previous posts, which describe the nest-building strategies of woolcarder bees, resin-pot bees, and a ground-dwelling species known as Osmia avosetta.

Above: the fully-constructed nest of a shell-nesting mason bee

Sources & More Info:

Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists' Society: Shell-Nesting Bees

The Little Book of Bees: Snail-Nesting Mason Bees

University of Hradec Králové: Bees Nesting in Empty Gastropod Shells

Bees of the World: Snail Shells

The Wildlife Trusts: Red-Tailed Mason Bees

Insects: Nesting Preferences of Osmia orientalis

Journal of Hymenoptera Research: Comparative Biology of Four Rhodanthidium Species that Nest in Snail Shells

Journal of Hymenoptera Research: Biology of Palaearctic Wainia Bees of the Subgenus Caposmia

Cambridge University Press: The Native Shell-Nesting Bee Osmia conjuncta

Above: the larval form of Fulgoraecia exigua

Caterpillars of the family Epipyropidae, commonly known as planthopper parasite moths, are ectoparasites that feed on the haemolymph (i.e. "blood") of planthoppers and cicadas. This family contains at least 40 described species, all of which are parasites or parasitoids.

Above: planthopper parasite caterpillars tucked beneath the wings of their hosts

This is one of the few known examples of a caterpillar that actually engages in parasitic, carnivorous and/or predatory behavior.

Above: Fulgoraecia exigua

The caterpillar has hooked claws that allow it to cling to the host's body; it uses its mandibles to penetrate the cuticle around the abdomen, then inserts a proboscis-like structure into the planthopper's body and begins to feed on the fluids within.

Each caterpillar spends about 4-6 weeks feeding on its host, with its body often tucked beneath the larger insect's wings.

Above: a Fulgoraecia exigua caterpillar can be seen feeding beneath the wings of this planthopper

Young planthopper nymphs that are parasitized by these caterpillars rarely survive the process. The survival rate for older nymphs and adult hemipterans is also quite low.

Above: the photo at the top shows an Epipomponia nawai caterpillar feeding on a cicada, while the photo on the bottom shows Fulgoraecia exigua feeding on a leafhopper

Planthopper parasite caterpillars are often tiny, with their bodies measuring just 3-7mm long, and they're covered in waxy white filaments that make them look like little cottonballs. These features seem to mimic the "fluffy" appearance of many fulgoroid planthopper nymphs, which may enable the caterpillar to sneak up on its host.

Above: planthopper parasite caterpillars

When the caterpillar reaches maturity, it finally detaches from its host and then uses a thin strand of silk to abseil down to a leaf or a branch, where it can spin a cocoon around its body and enter pupation.

Above: the cocoons of Fulgoraecia exigua

The caterpillars of this family create very distinctive cocoons. As delicate layers of silk are folded together around the pupal case, they often form ridges, cone-like structures, or wider, flatter folds that look almost like rose petals.

Above: a cocoon made by an unidentified moth from family Epipyropidae

The fully-developed moth may emerge weeks or even months later, depending on the species. The adults of this family typically have a blackish-gray appearance.

Above: the adult form of Epipomponia nawai

Other examples of predatory, carnivorous and/or parasitic moths can be found in my earlier post about meat-eating caterpillars.

Sources & More Info:

Journal of the Lepidopterist's Society: Predatory and Parasitic Lepidoptera

The Lepidoptera: Form, Function, and Diversity: Epipyropidae

Moths of North Carolina: Fulgoraecia exigua

Bug Guide: Family Epipyropidae

Bombay Natural History Society: The Biology and Morphology of Epipyrops eurybrachydis

Egyptian Journal of Biological Pest Control: Parasitism by Fulgoraecia melanoleuca

Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology: Behavioural and Phylogeographic Observations on Epipomponia nawai

I have seen them around! Apparently the lore says they used to be human, but so many dnd payable races are human-adjacent which is a little boring to me.

The githyanki sort of look like tall lanky goblins, and their yellowy green skin with some hint of scaly texture or speckles in some areas definitely makes me think reptile/amphibian.

On the other hand. They could keep the egg laying and the mammalian features if they're just some type of monotreme. Join the ranks of the echidna and platypus! Echidnas are the largest living group of monotremes, with multiple different species while platypuses only have the one species, so maybe the githyanki can have spiny hair like echidnas?

The main facial differences between githyanki and humans is just their ear shape and their small noses with a larger space between the nose and mouth. They could have much different face shapes to better distinguish them from humans. Maybe a snoot.

I am intrigued by the idea of echidna githyanki. But my brain is very sleepy this week, due to spending 8 hours binge watching the new season of live action One Piece and then speedrunning a book cover commission for a friend that found out the first artist she paid most likely used ai in some part of the process.

Monotreme giths? Interesting idea, I had to try drawing it.

They do not have true external ears, and their dark spots are actually tiny spines similar to echidna's. The most recognizable facial feature of giths is their upturned nose, so I moved it up to their forehead, in imitation of cetaceans. They have spurs on their feet, perhaps poisonous like those of platypuses. These spurs are used in ritual combat.

Also, those feet are quite strange, with toes pointing outward and tiny big toes. I wouldn't want to find shoes for feet like that…

Like today's platypus and hedgehogs, they lack gastric digestion and their digestive system is generally greatly reduced by their long stays in the astral sphere. They are therefore predominantly carnivorous.

I'm afraid that even though they are mammals, they still shouldn't have mammal-like breasts. Monotremes produce milk by sweating (Yes, milk is actually very modified sweat. Disgusting and miraculous.) on milk patches, on the echidna located in a kind of shallow pseudo-pouch on the abdomen. From there, the young do not suck the milk, but lick it.

Above: an Oxytenis modestia caterpillar mimicking a snake above a hummingbird's nest

The Costa Rican leaf moth, Oxytenis modestia, is an excellent mimic at every stage of its development.

Above: the late instar caterpillar of Oxytenis modestia

The newly-hatched caterpillars have a bumpy, brown-and-beige appearance that mimics bird feces (complete with fake seeds) while the older caterpillars have greenish-yellow bodies with markings that allow them to mimic a rolled-up leaf.

Above: the younger caterpillars mimicking bird droppings

As they reach maturity, they develop a flared thorax and a pair of false eyespots that mimic the appearance of a snake. These eyespots are generally hidden when the caterpillar is at rest, and they're exposed when it assumes its defensive pose.

Above: the older caterpillars displaying their eyespots

When the caterpillar feels threatened, it enhances its snake-like appearance by lifting its upper body, inflating the area around its head, and then swaying back and forth in a serpentine fashion.

Above: the defensive pose of Oxytenis modestia

The caterpillar's defense mechanism can sometimes backfire, however. This article describes a "stand-off" that ensued when an Oxytenis modestia caterpillar assumed its defensive pose right next to a hummingbird’s nest:

One of us noticed the hummingbird acting in an agitated and aggressive fashion. We looked for an assumed snake, but found instead the caterpillar, which was feeding on a leaf immediately above the nest.

Above: the caterpillar mimicking a snake right above the hummingbird's nest

In its defensive pose, the caterpillar bears a striking resemblance to a green parrot snake, which is a species that happens to feed on hummingbird eggs and hatchlings.

The caterpillar was mimicking a snake because it felt threatened by the hummingbird, and the hummingbird then became aggressive because it thought that the "snake" was attacking its nest:

When the caterpillar became agitated, it whipped out the false snake head, making the hummingbird feel threatened. And as the hummingbird’s attack intensified, the caterpillar became more snake-like—lifting the false head up, flaring out the sides, and swaying it back and forth.

Above: the hummingbird attempting to defend its nest

Thankfully, both of the animals survived the encounter (not that the hummingbird’s safety was ever in question):

The scuffle lasted for at least half an hour, and it only ended when the seemingly unharmed caterpillar crawled away—not because it took the high road, but most likely because its appetite kicked in.

The genus Oxytenis contains several other snake-mimicking species, all of which assume a similar defensive pose when threatened.

Above: more snake-mimicking caterpillars from the genus Oxytenis

The adult moths engage in mimicry, too, as they have a flat, brownish-beige appearance that mimics dead leaves.

Above: the adult forms of Oxytenis modestia and Oxytenis albilunulata

Some of the other snake-mimicking moths that have been featured on my blog include Hemeroplanes triptolemus, which has a stunningly realistic disguise, and Abbott's sphinx moth, which just looks like a tiny cyclops.

Sources & More Info:

Ecological Society of America: The Ultimate Stand-Off: Hummingbird vs. Caterpillar

Ecology: Antipredator Behavior by a Nesting Hummingbird in Response to a Caterpillar with Eyespots

iNaturalist: Photos of Oxytenis modestia

Audobon: Misunderstanding Between Caterpillar and Hummingbird Leads to High Stakes Face-Off

100 Butterflies and Moths: Oxytenis modestia

Above: Fastosarion brazieri, commonly known as the chameleon semi-slug, and an unidentified species of semi-slug from the genus Sheldonia

The term "semi-slug" is used to describe an intermediate stage of evolution as snails evolve into slugs. Nearly 1,000 different species of semi-slugs are known to exist, and these bizarre little creatures can be found on at least four continents.

Above: Fastosarion brazieri and Varadia amboliensis

Each species of semi-slug is technically still classified as a snail, but its shell is noticeably reduced, becoming more internalized as the species evolves. A semi-slug officially becomes a regular-slug once its shell is no longer visible at all.

As this article explains:

If life were simple, there would be snails and slugs. Snails carry their homes on their backs; slugs are naked and embarrassed. But life isn’t simple, so of course there’s secret option #3 – the semi-slug, a bizarre creature that sits exactly between the snail and the slug.

Above: genus Satiella and genus Euaustenia

This article also adds:

In contrast to snails that have an external shell large enough to accommodate the body, or slugs in which the shell is completely internal or absent, semi-slugs have an external shell, but the shell is too small to accommodate the animal’s entire body.

Above: Megaustenia siamensis

This process is known as limacization, and it's especially common in moist, low-calcium environments where a snail's shell may be more of a burden than a benefit:

Terrestrial slugs are not a monophyletic group, but a case of convergent evolution in which the slug form evolved from different lineages of land snails that gradually lost their shell through a process called limacization. Limacization resulted in adaptive radiation in land snail lineages, as slugs became adapted to diverse moist and protected spaces, such as crevices in rocks and wood debris. The loss of the shell also allowed for more movement and less calcium dependence, making slugs more successful as pests.

Above: Gaeotis nigrolineata, also known as the Puerto Rican semi-slug, has a neon green shell that is almost completely internalized, but the shell is clearly visible through the semi-slug's translucent body

Some semi-slugs have shells that are still opaque and largely visible, with the mantle (a patch of flesh) covering only the outer edges of the shell, while others have shells that are more significantly reduced, transparent, and/or concealed.

Above: Ibycus rachelae, commonly known as the green-shelled semi-slug, and a species of semi-slug from the genus Durgella

This topic was mentioned in my previous post about Ibycus rachelae, but I wanted to write a more detailed post about semi-slugs, because they're just so fascinating and weird.

Above: a black-and-white semi-slug from subfamily Sheldoniinae

Above: Fastosarion brazieri again, but this one is especially spiky for some reason

Sources & More Info:

Australian Geographic: Meet the Semi-Slug, a Snail without a Home

Carnegie Museum of Natural History: What's So Good about Being a Slug?

Frontiers: Terrestrial Slugs in Neotropical Agroecosystems (PDF)

iNaturalist: Photos 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, & 12

The Shell-Makers (Introducing Molluscs): On Becoming Sluggish

Land Snails and Slugs of Sabah and Labuan, Malaysia: Semi-Slugs

Above: Carriola witti

Moths of the genus Carriola have a very unusual appearance, as their wings are covered in translucent patches that reveal a delicate network of greenish-yellow veins. The green coloration is caused by the haemolymph (i.e. "blood") that passes through these veins.

Above: the male form of Carriola thyridophora, with a close-up of the hyaline windows and bright green veins on its wings

The males of this genus typically have brown or beige borders around their wings, while the females have pink or white borders instead. The hyaline windows also tend to be much clearer and more extensive in the females.

Above: the female form of Carriola seminsula

This article describes the adaptive benefits of wing transparency in moths:

The coevolutionary arms race between prey and predator has generated some of the most striking adaptations in the living world, including lures, mimicry and camouflage in prey. Transparency, by definition, constitutes the perfect background matching against virtually all types of backgrounds. Transparency is common in pelagic environments where there is no place to hide.

Above: genus Carriola

Carriola tussock moths can be found in many different countries throughout Southeast Asia, including Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, the Philippines and Malaysia. They also inhabit certain parts of China, India and Sri Lanka.

Above: Carriola seminsula

This is one of my favorite moths, tbh. I love it when moths have hyaline windows on their wings, and this genus is especially beautiful and bizarre.

Sources & More Info:

Nota Lepidopterologica: Review of the Genus Carriola with Descriptions of Four New Species

Singapore Biodiversity: Carriola ecnomoda

iNaturalist: Genus Carriola

BioRxiv: How Transparent Wing Windows Reduce Detectability in Moths

Journal of Evolutionary Biology: Transparency Improves Concealment in Cryptically Colored Moths (PDF)

Moths of Borneo: Carriola Tussock Moths

various vetulicolians are up on my Youtube channel

alt: video shows vetulicolians in an aquarium setting with the glass aquarium Background and sometimes the water surface.

This species has only been documented at the Cairns Botanic Gardens in Australia, where it was discovered by a photographer/tour guide named Bridgette Gower back in 2020. The strange-looking insect is also known as "Bridgey's midgey," and it's recognized as an undescribed species of lace bug from the genus Oecharis.

The distinctive "cyst" on the insect's back is actually part of the pronotum (the plate that covers the dorsal side of its body) and it's formed by two separate structures that meet along the midline of the thorax; these two structures part whenever the insect needs to use its wings, which are folded beneath the dome.

The entire pronotum is covered in dark, lacy patterns and translucent cells that make the "cyst" seem even more exaggerated.

The adults of this species measure roughly 3mm long. Entomologists have also documented and collected the nymphs, which have flat, shiny bodies that are completely black.

Lace bugs (family Tingidae) are tiny insects that feed on plant fluids, and their common name is derived from the fact that they often have delicate and extremely intricate structures on their wings and pronotum.

Sources & More Info:

iNaturalist: Genus Oecharis

Aussie Macro Photos: Finding Bridgey's Midgey

Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology: Lace Bug Genera of the World, Part II (PDF)

I love this idea, because nowadays we have made merfolk and sirens into basically the same thing, but actually sirens were originally bird ladies!

bird ladies based on actual swimming birds would be a very fun way to bring back the og siren concept while also keeping some connection to the modern idea of sirens as mermaids!

(image description: many sketches of swimming birds, traced from reference photos. this includes penguins, puffins, the great auk, a prehistoric penguin, a loon, an anhinga, and a gannet. below all these birds is an old fashioned siren design, which is a bird with a woman's face. end description)

now, I don't actually think mermaids need to be all long and flexible, to be honest. it's the common portrayal, to be sure. long elegant tails has become the norm for modern mermaid designs. but it's not a requirement by any means! they can be shorter and still swim beautifully. most swimming birds primarily use their feet to propel themselves, with some like the loon keeping their wings folded up while others use their wings to steer and possibly add extra swimming force.

I would suggest looking up videos of swimming birds as reference points, so here's a list of birds:

penguins, puffins, cormorants, loons, anhinga, gannet, guillemot, kingfishers. (kingfishers mostly just dive, but the videos of them underwater are lovely)

here are a few neat videos:

Arsinoitherium zitteli was a large herbivorous mammal living in what is now northern Africa during the late Eocene and early Oligocene, about 36-30 million years ago.

Despite looking like a double-horned rhino this resemblance was only superficial, and for most of the 20th century it was actually the only known representative of an entire order of mammals – the embrithopods – with its wider evolutionary relationships being unknown. Since the 1970s, however, more members of this group have been discovered and embrithopods are now understood to be afrotheres, a very early offshoot of the tethythere lineage, with their closest living relatives being modern elephants and sirenians.

Arsinoitherium was by far the most abundant embrithopod, with numerous fossil remains making it one of the most completely known African fossil mammals. It stood around 1.8m tall at the shoulder (6'), similar in size to modern white rhinos, and would have been a massively-built slow-moving animal with elephant-like columnar limbs.

Its pair of enormous nose horns (and smaller brow horns) were structurally more similar to those of bovids than rhinos, with large hollow bony cores that probably bore thick keratinous sheaths that would have increased their apparent size even more. Both males and females appear to have had these horns, and muscle attachments at the back of the skull suggest Arsinoitherium could powerfully swing its head upwards – possibly wrestling with each other in combat over territories, competing for mates, or in establishing dominance hierarchies.

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This article on polar bears does a good job of explaining the different purposes of fur and fat:

Essentially, fur (and feathers) keep a body warm from the outside, trapping air near the skin to insulate it. With good water repelling oils, the fur or feathers can also resist becoming soaked, which would ruin the insulation.

Fat insulates from the inside and also acts as an energy reserve. Fat can be metabolized to give the body an energy boost, while fur and feathers cannot.

A creature that lives full time in the water has less need for fur or feathers because even really good waterproofing will eventually be insufficient and the fur or feathers will become soaked, which makes them heavier and colder. Instead, fully aquatic mammals like whales have a lot of internal fat, primarily blubber. Which is actually different from regular fat and very effective at keeping a body warm.

On the other hand, fur and feathers also have their disadvantages. Because, as you mentioned, they function by trapping air, they need to be cared for, groomed, and fluffed. This takes time. A lot of time, for example, for sea otters it is about 20% of their daylight hours.

Fur and feathers also need to be replaced from time to time. They wear out. However, replacing the coat reduces its thermal and water insulation. For example, harbor seals molt for 3-4 months, but you can only see it for a month, during which they go into the water less (there is greater heat loss in the water).

However, some species undergo a so-called catastrophic moult, losing and regrowing their entire coat at once. For example, elephant seals molt for a month, when they not only shed club hairs but also sheets of cornified epidermis through which the club hairs penetrate. Penguins also molt. Two weeks when new feathers push out the old. Go find photos of them. They look ridiculous. During a catastrophic moult, penguins and seals stay on land and fast because they can't go into the water.