worldbuilding

SKALDIC POETRY

Primarily documented in sagas, skaldic poetry is usually about history, particularly the celebrated actions of kings, jarls, and some heroes. It typically includes little dialogue and recounted battles in dialogue. It has more complex styles, especially using dróttkvætt and many kennings.

DRÓTTKVÆTT (“courtly metre”)

- Adds internal rhymes and assonance (repetition of both consonants AND vowels) beyond the normal alliterative verse

- The stanza had 8 lines, each line usually having 3 lifts (heavily stressed syllables) and almost always 6 syllables

- The stress patterns tends to be trochaic (stressed, unstressed), with at least the last 2 syllables of a line being a trochee (usually...)

- In odd-numbered lines (first line, third line, etc.): 2 of the stressed syllables alliterate with one another; two of the stressed syllables share partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels (ex: hat and bet; touching and orchard)

- In even-numbered lines (second line, fourth line, etc.): the first stressed syllable must alliterate with the alliterative stressed syllables of the previous line (an odd-numbered line); two of the stressed syllables rhyme (ex: hat and cat; torching and orchard)

These requirements are SO difficult that oftentimes poets would mash together two separate lines of writing in order to meet the structure. It’s really hard to explain, so read the wikipedia link here for more info.

KENNINGS

Kennings are figures of speech strongly associated with Old Norse-Icelandic and Old English poetry. It is a “type of circumlocution, a compound  employs figurative language in place of a more concrete single-word noun” (source).

Now, when I first read that, I had zero clue what the hell that meant. But this is my current understanding: a poetic device where you dance around using a single noun by describing it with other words. It is similar to the poetic device of parallelism.

- “bane of wood” = fire (Old Norse kenning)

- “sleep of the sword” = death (Old English kenning)

- Drahtesel = “wire-donkey” = bicycle (modern German kenning)

- Stubentiger = “parlour-tiger” = house cat (modern German kenning)

- Genesis 49:11 “blood of grapes” = wine

- Job 15:14 “born of woman” = man

A beautiful resource for translated kennings is this article here from the HuffPost’s Harold Anthony Lloyd.

SIMPLE KENNINGS

Simple kennings would be used in both Eddic and Skaldic poetry.

The usual forms are a genitive phrase (ex: the wave’s horse = ship) or a compound word (sea-steed = ship). There is usually a base-word and a determinant.

The determinant may be a noun used uninflected as the first element in a compound word, with the base-word being the second element of the compound word.

OR the determinant may be a noun in the genitive case placed before or after the base-word, either directly or separated from the base-word by intervening words. The base-words in the above examples are “horse” and “steed”, while the determinants are “waves” and “sea”.

The unstated noun which the kenning refers to is called its “referent”, in the example a bit above: ship.

COMPLEX KENNINGS

More complex kennings are really only used in skaldic poetry.

In these, the determinant and sometimes the base-word are themselves made up of kennings. A matryoshka doll of kennings, if you will.

Ex: “feeder of war-gull (bird)” = “feeder of raven” = “warrior” (referring to how warriors kill people and leave their corpses for birds to eat)

The longest kenning in Skaldic poetry belongs to Þórðr Sjáreksson’s  Hafgerðinga where he writes “fire-brandisher of blizzard of ogress of protection-moon of steed of boat-shed”, which means “warrior” (source).

EDDIC POETRY

Eddic poetry is usually about mythology, ethics, and heroes, and is narrative (where both the narrator and the characters are speaking). They use simpler structures, like fornyrðislag, ljóðaháttr, and málaháttr, and use kennings more sparingly.

FORNYRÐISLAG (”old story metre”)

- Each line tends to be a whole phrase or sentence (or end-stopped), where a sentence won’t “run over” and onto the next line (or enjambment).

Ex: End-stopped, from William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet “A glooming peace this morning with it brings. / The sun for sorrow will not show his head.”

Ex: Enjambed, from T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land “ Winter kept us warm, covering / Earth in forgetful snow, feeding / A little life with dried tubers.”

- Each verse is split into 2 to 8 (or more) stanzas.

Ex: from Waking of Angantyr (structure provided by wikipedia)

- There are 2 lifts per half line, usually with two or three unstressed syllables. At least 2 (but usually 3) lifts will alliterate, always including the main stave (the first life of the second half-line). This means there are usually between 4 and 5 syllables per half line, and therefore between 8 and 10 syllables per full line (but it can vary).

MÁLAHÁTTR (“conversational style”)

- Similar to fornyrðislag, but there are more syllables in a line.

- It adds an unstressed syllable to each half-line, making the typical 2-3 per half-line and 4-6 per line into 3-4 per half-line and upwards of 6 unstressed syllables per line

LJÓÐAHÁTTR (“song” or “ballad metre”)

- Usually made up of stanzas with four lines each

- Odd numbered lines were usually standard lines of alliterative verse with 4 lifts and 2 or 3 alliterations. It was cut in half with a “cæsura” or “//”, which indicates the end of one phrase and the beginning of another.

- Even numbered lines had 3 lifts and 2 alliterations, with no cæsura.

Ex: from Freyr’s lament in Skírnismál (structure provided by wikipedia)

WRITING IMITATION

When writing an imitation of Eddic and Skaldic poetry, there are many workarounds if you don’t want to jump through these hoops.

Personally, I am putting forward my imitation as a “translation” of an Old Norse text so I don’t need as much concern for alliteration, rhymes, and exact syllables.

But I enjoy having a similar feel to the original poems, so I do try to put in some alliteration for words that are of Norse/Germanic origin and keep a similar syllable count.

Posted: 2023 May 29

Edited last: 2023 May 30

There are few primary sources of Scandinavian history and stories from the times of “Vikings”, or from the late 8th century to the late 11th century. There are artifacts with runic writing, but these are short and few in number. Most of the documents about Scandinavians written during their time are from outside sources (and often they are biased against the Norsemen) (source).

In the late 11th and early 12th centuries, Christianity and its method of writing in Latin was introduced to Scandinavia. After Latin was introduced, the oral traditions began to be recorded by a variety of authors, though the most notable is Snorri Sturluson (who compiled the Prose Edda) (source).

The most important to study of the Old Norse languages and the mythos of these peoples are the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda.

“The Poetic Edda is the modern name for an untitled collection of Old Norse anonymous narrative poems” (source). There are several versions, and the most notable is an Icelandic text called Codex Regius from the 1270s CE which has 31 poems. These poems were not written by any one poet, but were collected and recorded from oral tradition. The exact age of these poems are unknown, but are considered to be the only direct records of Norsemen from their times.

The Prose Edda “is an Old Norse textbooks written in Iceland during the 13th century”. Its major and most well known contributor is Snorri Sturluson, a scholar and historian. The contents of the book are accounts of Old Norse mythology. Many of its sources are the same poems documented in the Poetic Edda.

Now, more on Old Norse poetry. For the most part, history and stories of the time of Vikings were passed down orally in two types of poetry.

Skaldic poetry (named for their creators: skald, or court poets) mostly regarded history and celebrated kings and jarls. It typically included little dialogue and recounted battles in detail. In comparison to Eddic poetry, Skaldic verse tends to be more complex in style and uses dróttkvætt. It also uses more kennings. While not proven, there is some speculation that skald accompanied their verse with a harp or lyre (source). It is mostly recorded in sagas.

Eddic poetry (named for the book they are compiled in: the Poetic Edda) is narrative, where there is both a narrator and characters speaking. They are characterized by their focus on mythology, ethics, and heroes, as well as a simpler way of verse (using fornyrðislag, ljóðaháttr, and málaháttr). It uses kennings, but less extensively than Skaldic poetry. It is mostly dialogue (source 1, source 2).

Kennings are figures of speech strongly associated with Old Norse-Icelandic and Old English poetry. It is a “type of circumlocution, a compound employs figurative language in place of a more concrete single-word noun” (source).

Now, when I first read that, I had zero clue what the hell that meant. But this is my current understanding: a poetic device where you dance around using a single noun by describing it with other words. It is similar to the poetic device of parallelism.

- “bane of wood” = fire (Old Norse kenning)

- “sleep of the sword” = death (Old English kenning)

- Drahtesel = “wire-donkey” = bicycle (modern German kenning)

- Stubentiger = “parlour-tiger” = house cat (modern German kenning)

- Genesis 49:11 “blood of grapes” = wine

- Job 15:14 “born of woman” = man

  In a later post I will go into further details of the exact format of the two types of poetry. But it will be in the context of writing imitations.

Posted: 2023 May 29

Last edited: 2023 May 30

ISHINERI AND BINTSUKE ABURA (primers)

Image: A modern-day tub of bintsuke abura

(Source: Geisha of Japan)

While not necessary, it is a good idea to prime the face before applying makeup.

Abura, or primer, is made of wax or a wax-like substance. It protects the skin from sweat and the intense makeup. While using a primer is better for the skin than not, using abura every day can cause skin problems as the skin can’t “breathe” with the coverings over it (source). Another plus of using abura is that the user now has a smooth surface to apply oshiroi. Now the skin will look incredibly smooth, even if the natural skin has blemishes to it.

Abura is prepared for use by taking a small amount of it and warming it in your hands and applying thinly over the face.

While unclear if this is true of past makeup, modern wearers of traditional makeup use two types of abura. Ishineri is wax used to flatten out one’s natural eyebrows, and bintsuke is wax or oil that goes over the skin of the face.

After prepping the face with abura, oshiroi can be applied.

OSHIROI (lit. “white powder”)

Image: Modern-day geisha named Kikuyae applying oshiroi

(Source: Geishakai)

The base for the makeup is a thick white paint. Oshiroi is prepared as a powder, and then added to water and mixed right before applying. It is painted on with brushes and smoothed out with sponges.

While the recipe of oshiroi has changed over the years, its use has been constant.

In the Nara and Heian periods (710-794 CE and 794-1185 CE, respectively), women painted their faces with oshiroi in order to lighten the appearance of their skin, though it was not the stark color shift we see in the image above. For the most part, the use of makeup was practiced by wealthy women.

I found it difficult to find records of makeup during the years between 1185 CE and the beginning of the Edo period in 1603 CE, but it appears that the shift to pursuing a stark color change (as we see in modern oshiroi wearers) was solidified in the Edo period (source).

In the Edo period, the main ingredient for oshiroi was either white lead powder or mercury powder. Starting in this period, common women wore makeup everyday. Common women used lead, while wealthy used mercury (as it was more expensive) (source). Now we know that these ingredients have bad side effects, so they are no longer used. Alongside these metal powders, ingredients like zinc oxide and seashells were used (source).

Modern oshiroi is made with zinc oxide (still), corn starch, magnesium carbonate, talc, and kaolinite (source).

BENI (crimson red powder)

Image: A 1920 CE woodblock print by Hashiguchi Goyo of a woman applying beni to her lips

(Source: Glamour Daze)

Beni is used as rouge for lips and cheeks, adding color to the white canvas provided by oshiroi. It is also applied with brushes.

Beni is traditionally made with crushed safflower petals. The flower was first cultivated in Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq and parts of Iran, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey) as early as 2500 BCE (source). After going to India, and then to China (via the Silk Road), safflower ended up in Japan between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE (source).

Safflower can be used for many things, but its major boon is that it can be used as a substitute for saffron, which is more difficult to grow and more expensive. Safflower is used in culinary oils and dyes for clothing and cosmetics (source).

The petals of fresh safflower are orange/yellow. The petals are crushed into a paste and then washed with water to remove the water-soluble yellow pigment. The red pigment is extracted using multiple alkaline baths (the more baths, the most strong/deep the red) (source).

Safflower (or benibana) was first used as a dye in the Nara period of 710-784 CE. It was used in art for painting in red but then was used by noblewomen beginning in the Heian period of 794-1185 CE for cosmetics. Since beni is difficult to produce and expensive, the pigment is used sparingly, unless one is showing off their wealth.

Besides safflower petals, red bugs and mineral oils are also used to make red pigment. The pigment is mixed with water and applied with a small brush.

Beni is painted on the lips, though the exact designs vary depending on the individual and the trends of the time (I will go into more detail later on in the post); on the eyebrows, or historically a little higher than the original eyebrows alongside some black pigment (again, more detail later); and around the eyes. It can also be applied VERY LIGHTLY to create a pale pink contour for the face.

CHARCOAL

Charcoal is used to draw in the eyebrows and line the eyes (source 1, source 2).

OHAGURO (lit. “black teeth”)

Image: A maiko with blackened teeth

(Source: Geisha of Japan)

Ohaguro is the custom of blackening one’s teeth with a dye that is painted on. Covering the teeth prevents them and the enamel from decaying. The dye fades quickly and is applied once a day or every few days to keep the dark shade even (source).

First, a dark brown solution is made of iron filings dissolved in vinegar. Then the solution is combined with vegetable tannins (biomolecules) which turns it black and insoluble in water (source).

To prepare the teeth for painting, they are rubbed with the peel of a pomegranate, which forms a sort of adhesive surface for the dye. Then the dye is prepared and painted on. Afterward, people gargle water to get rid of excess dye.

While the exact origin of this practice is still unclear, having blackened teeth eventually became a sign of beauty.

Ohaguro first appeared among noblemen and noblewomen of the Heian period (794-1185) and then spread to include women of all social classes. In the very beginning, it was a rite of maturity for girls, but by the end of the Heian period, it was something almost all noblemen did.

In the Kamakura period (1194-1333), samurai upon passing their genpuku or initiation ceremony at age 15 or 16 would begin to dye their teeth. Ohaguro was originally only for noble people, but eventually it was alright for geisha and married women of all social classes to perform it.

During the Muromachi period (1336-1573), ohaguro was part of the rite of passage of maturity for both boys and girls. When girls got married, their female relatives would teach them how to blacken their teeth.

Nearing the end of the Sengoku period (1467-1638), men engaging in ohaguro became less and less common.

During the Edo period (1603-1867), the only men blackening their teeth were of the Imperial Family or of the aristocracy. Women only blackened their teeth if they were getting married or engaged, sex workers, or geisha.

In 1870, ohaguro on men was banned. And from then on the practice became less and less common, especially among married women and noblewomen.

Until the end of the Meiji period (1868-1912), ohaguro was still popular among the middle and lower classes. And in the Taisho period (1912-1926), it virtually disappeared except among elderly women in rural areas.

Nowadays, ohaguro is really only seen at festivals, period films, kabuki, and in some geisha districts wherein maiko have their teeth blackened in the last stage of their apprenticeship before becoming geisha.

(Source for entire ohaguro section)

MVP Sources (Very helpful to have open when doing research or writing :D)

[1] - A step-by-step tutorial on how a modern-day geisha or maiko applies their makeup. They use modern ingredients and supplies, but the process is similar.

[2] - A shorter tutorial than [1], but covers the main points.

[3] - Google Arts & Culture article on the process of making beni from safflower petals and the different methods of sale (powders, rouge tubes, etc.)

Posted: 2023 May 29

Last edited: 2023 May 29