#solstices

Stonehenge is a megalith organized on the Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England, and like all ancient monuments, it has been fascinating for centuries. The construction of the pillars that form the ceiling is thought to be so tall and symbolic that it creates curiosity. Though the available knowledge regarding Stonehenge remains unbiased, several issues are still mired in controversy. This typical blog post focuses on Stonehenge mainly in terms of the purpose of its construction, the methods used in construction, and the celestial purpose that was assigned to the stone circle.

The Purpose of Stonehenge

Arguably, one of the most frequently asked questions about Stonehenge is about the monument’s function. There are a number of theories that, when examined, are proffered with much rationale as to why they should be accepted.

A Ceremonial Site

Due to its construction complexity and its specific layout, Stonehenge was expected to be used ceremonially. This indicates that it was used in religious observances since it has an alignment with the sun solstices of the summers and winters. The main structure of the Heel Stone was placed to align itself with the sun rise on the summer solstice, which suggests solar cult or agricultural rituals.

A Burial Ground

A study carried out on human bones pulled from various digs in and around Stonehenge suggests that it served as the burial place of individuals. Cremated remains were observed at the site, indicating that it was one of the important burial grounds for the elites or people of higher rank in that period and was in use as early as 3000 BC. But this theory fits with the belief that Stonehenge was built as a shrine for ancestor spirits.

A Healing Center

There are theories that certain elements of the monument, as well as the placement of Stonehenge as a whole, were intended to allow for this. A couple of skeletons bearing marks of diseases and wounds that may have been fatal imply that those in ailing states could trek to the shrine with the hope of being healed. The bluestones used in the construction of the circle were believed to have healing virtues, and these originated in Wales.

An Astronomical Observatory

One of the dominant theories is that the grand monument was an ancient observatory, and the stones were aligned with specific stars. This is consistent with the idea since the precise laying down of stones correlates with the occurrence of solstices and equinoxes. It could have probably been utilized in the prediction of astronomy, which helped in agriculture and the scheduling of religious ceremonies.

The Construction of Stonehenge

Historians and archaeologists have marveled at the creation of Stonehenge, which is a circle of stones. No technology was available, and yet it was quite intriguing how the prehistoric people moved and set up those large stones.

Transporting the stones

Stonehenge consists of two types of stones: sarsen stones and bluestones of the neolithic period from western Asia and Europe, respectively. The giant sarsen stones, which each weigh up to 25 tons, may have come from the Marlborough Downs, located 32 kilometers away. These were the smaller bluestones that could weigh up to 4 tons and were transported from Preseli Hills in Wales, more than 240 km away.

Earlier, it was assumed that the construction was transported using sledges and rollers, and later through water bodies. Such an immense operation would have necessitated proper planning in terms of human labor and advanced engineering.

Erecting the Stones

Even when the stones were on site, another problem arose as to how best to put them up or raise them. Currently, ancient writers have posited that prehistoric builders employed a system of earth ramps and wooden beams to lift the construction pieces and maneuver them to their appropriate positions. The lintels, or horizontal stones, were fitted and locked in position through the use of mortise and tenon joints, a sign of the high technicality that had been attained.

Precision and planning

Because there are only megaliths arranged in a circular fashion within the walls of Stonehenge, constructing the monument was a highly precise undertaking that needed careful planning as well as knowledge of geometry and astronomy. They are arranged neatly in a cyclic fashion, and several of them are oriented in specific positions depending on the rightful rites associated with stars. The sophistication of the measurements and the accuracy of the alignments show the builders must have been skilled people with knowledge.

Celestial Alignments

Another interesting historical fact about Stonehenge is that the construction of the circle was to have some kind of correlation with some astronomical phenomena. The feature has had people believing that it was used for astronomical purposes since it was created.

Solstices and Equinoxes

Arising from the above, it can be well argued that Stonehenge was well-aligned to create a solar calendar with shadow markers that pointed directly to the summer and winter solstices. As such, during the summer solstice, the sun reverses its position over the Heel Stone, rises directly at the monument, and provides a shadow through the heart of the stones. This formation can be observed during the shortest day of the year, the winter solstice, when the sun sets in the direction of the Altar Stone. Such alignments indicate that Stonehenge wanted to signify the change of seasons, something that was indeed important in civilizations that dealt with farming.

Lunar Alignments

However, it is not only solar alignments that have been associated with Stonehenge; lunar relationships are evident as well. Some stones are oriented north-south, east-west, and large stones lie parallel to the moon; the builders may have monitored the lunar cycle. It could have been used to estimate eclipses of the moon or some other event, and this has been achieved when its current facet aligns with a past instance.

When can Stonehenge be crowned as having the enduring mystique of Stonehenge?

Nonetheless, the mystery enveloping Stonehenge remains intact since there are countless theories developed by researchers, but the monument still has many secrets. The intent behind its creation, the architectural techniques used in building it, and the connection with astronomy continue to be the objects of discussion and wonder. These monuments oppose the question of historical relevance by holding immense aesthetic and cognitive appeal for multi-generational scrutiny.

Stonehenge is not just a set of stones set together; it is a dynamically creative structure erected by our forefathers. This alignment with the stars, together with the effort that went into the construction of the monument, shows how the value system of paleolithic people pegged heavily on the physical environment.

It does make you think that as people carry on digging around Stonehenge and researching it, will more features and facts surrounding the monument be revealed? Nevertheless, the true purpose of Stonehenge can be explained only in riddles, and a shadow of it is still being whispered to inspire and amaze people around the world, all the while making them think about our ancestors’ genius in the field of architecture.

NEW YORK (AP) — Leap year. It’s a delight for the calendar and math nerds among us.

So how did it all begin and why?

Have a look at some of the numbers, history and lore behind the (not quite) every four year phenom that adds a 29th day to February.

BY THE NUMBERS

The math is mind-boggling in a layperson sort of way and down to fractions of days and minutes.

There’s even a leap second occasionally, but there’s no hullabaloo when that happens.

The thing to know is that leap year exists, in large part, to keep the months in sync with annual events, including equinoxes and solstices, according to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology.

It’s a correction to counter the fact that Earth’s orbit isn’t precisely 365 days a year.

The trip takes about six hours longer than that, NASA says.

Contrary to what some might believe, however, not every four years is a leaper.

Adding a leap day every four years would make the calendar longer by more than 44 minutes, according to the National Air & Space Museum.

Later, on a calendar yet to come (we’ll get to it), it was decreed that years divisible by 100 not follow the four-year leap day rule unless they are also divisible by 400, the JPL notes.

In the past 500 years, there was no leap day in 1700, 1800 and 1900, but 2000 had one.

In the next 500 years, if the practice is followed, there will be no leap day in 2100, 2200, 2300 and 2500.

The next leap years are 2028, 2032, and 2036.

WHAT WOULD HAPPEN WITHOUT A LEAP DAY?

Eventually, nothing good in terms of when major events fall, when farmers plant and how seasons align with the sun and the moon.

“Without the leap years, after a few hundred years we will have summer in November,” said Younas Khan, a physics instructor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham.

“Christmas will be in summer. There will be no snow. There will be no feeling of Christmas.”

WHO CAME UP WITH LEAP YEAR?

The short answer: It evolved.

Ancient civilizations used the cosmos to plan their lives, and there are calendars dating back to the Bronze Age.

They were based on either the phases of the moon or the sun, as various calendars are today. Usually they were “lunisolar,” using both.

Now hop on over to the Roman Empire and Julius Caesar.

He was dealing with major seasonal drift on calendars used in his neck of the woods. They dealt badly with drift by adding months.

He was also navigating a vast array of calendars starting in a vast array of ways in the vast Roman Empire.

He introduced his Julian calendar in 46 BCE.

It was purely solar and counted a year at 365.25 days, so once every four years an extra day was added.

Before that, the Romans counted a year at 355 days, at least for a time.

But still, under Julius, there was drift. There were too many leap years.

"The solar year isn’t precisely 365.25 days. It’s 365.242 days," said Nick Eakes, an astronomy educator at the Morehead Planetarium and Science Center at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill.

Thomas Palaima, a classics professor at the University of Texas at Austin, said adding periods of time to a year to reflect variations in the lunar and solar cycles was done by the ancients.

The Athenian calendar, he said, was used in the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries with 12 lunar months.

That didn’t work for seasonal religious rites. The drift problem led to “intercalating” an extra month periodically to realign with lunar and solar cycles, Palaima said.

The Julian calendar was 0.0078 days (11 minutes and 14 seconds) longer than the tropical year, so errors in timekeeping still gradually accumulated, according to NASA. But stability increased, Palaima said.

The Julian calendar was the model used by the Western world for hundreds of years.

Enter Pope Gregory XIII, who calibrated further. His Gregorian calendar took effect in the late 16th century.

It remains in use today and, clearly, isn’t perfect or there would be no need for leap year. But it was a big improvement, reducing drift to mere seconds.

Why did he step in? Well, Easter.

It was coming later in the year over time, and he fretted that events related to Easter like the Pentecost might bump up against pagan festivals.

The pope wanted Easter to remain in the spring.

He eliminated some extra days accumulated on the Julian calendar and tweaked the rules on leap day.

It’s Pope Gregory and his advisers who came up with the really gnarly math on when there should or shouldn’t be a leap year.

“If the solar year was a perfect 365.25 then we wouldn’t have to worry about the tricky math involved,” Eakes said.

WHAT’S THE DEAL WITH LEAP YEAR AND MARRIAGE?

Bizarrely, leap day comes with lore about women popping the marriage question to men.

It was mostly benign fun, but it came with a bite that reinforced gender roles.

There’s distant European folklore.

"One story places the idea of women proposing in fifth-century Ireland, with St. Bridget appealing to St. Patrick to offer women the chance to ask men to marry them," according to historian Katherine Parkin in a 2012 paper in the Journal of Family History.

Nobody really knows where it all began.

In 1904, syndicated columnist Elizabeth Meriwether Gilmer, aka Dorothy Dix, summed up the tradition this way:

“Of course people will say ... that a woman’s leap year prerogative, like most of her liberties, is merely a glittering mockery.”

The pre-Sadie Hawkins tradition, however serious or tongue-in-cheek, could have empowered women but merely perpetuated stereotypes.

The proposals were to happen via postcard, but many such cards turned the tables and poked fun at women instead.

Advertising perpetuated the leap year marriage game. A 1916 ad by the American Industrial Bank and Trust Co. read thusly:

“This being Leap Year day, we suggest to every girl that she propose to her father to open a savings account in her name in our own bank.”

There was no breath of independence for women due to leap day.

SHOULD WE PITY THE LEAPLINGS?

Being born in a leap year on a leap day certainly is a talking point. But it can be kind of a pain from a paperwork perspective.

Some governments and others requiring forms to be filled out and birthdays to be stated stepped in to declare what date was used by leaplings for such things as drivers licenses, whether February 28 or March 1.

Technology has made it far easier for leap babies to jot down their February 29 milestones, though there can be glitches in terms of health systems, insurance policies, and with other businesses and organization that don’t have that date built in.

There are about 5 million people worldwide who share the leap birthday out of about 8 billion people on the planet.

Shelley Dean, 23, in Seattle, Washington, chooses a rosy attitude about being a leapling.

Growing up, she had normal birthday parties each year, but an extra special one when leap years rolled around.

Since, as an adult, she marks that non-leap period between February 28 and March 1 with a low-key “whew.”

This year is different.

“It will be the first birthday that I’m going to celebrate with my family in eight years, which is super exciting, because the last leap day I was on the other side of the country in New York for college,” she said. “It’s a very big year.”