Anatolian Religion goes International: The Cult of the Goddess Kybele in the Ancient World
Bronze statuette of Kybele on a cart drawn by lions, Roman, 2nd half of 2nd century CE. MET (ID: 97.22.24).
During the Hellenistic period, mystery cults became increasingly popular. Many people found little comfort in the traditional Greek pantheon and, as a result, turned to other belief systems and forms of worship to fulfill their spiritual needs. Philosophical schools like Stoicism and Epicureanism flourished, while new religious cults emerged, often offering consolation for earthly hardships by promising rewards in the afterlife. Many of these cults were centered around foreign deities, partly due to their exotic and mysterious allure. One famous example is the Egyptian goddess Isis, whose cult quickly spread throughout the Mediterranean. These new religious practices were especially popular in various Hellenistic colonies but also gained a following on the Greek mainland. In fact, as early as the 5th century BCE, foreign cults began to make their way into classical Athens. Among these exotic deities was Kybele.
Kybele, also known as Ma or the Great Mother, was an ancient goddess of Anatolian origin. She was initially known in the Hittite world as Kubaba and was of local significance only in the city of Karkemish. During the period of the Neo-Hittite kingdoms (12th–8th century BCE), Kybele—as she came to be known in the Phrygian language—rose in prominence within the Anatolian pantheon. From then on, she was worshipped as a mother goddess, offering aid to those in need. It was in Phrygia that Kybele also developed into a goddess of raw nature, regarded as a divine force capable of taming the wild beasts that roamed the Anatolian landscape. She was often associated with the mountains and caverns that dotted the region.
Cybele enthroned, with lion, cornucopia, and mural crown, Roman, c. 50 CE. Getty Museum
Her main center of worship was located in Pessinus, an ancient Phrygian trading hub on the high Anatolian plateau, situated along the Gallos River, a seasonal tributary of the Sakarya River. Her spirit was believed to dwell in a large black baetylus rock, which served as a sacred cult object. In 205/4 BCE, this stone was famously transported to Rome and placed in a sanctuary on the Palatine Hill after a prophecy declared that her assistance was crucial in the war against Hannibal.
As previously noted, Kybele became very popular in the Greek world. The oldest known temple dedicated to her in the Hellenic world is located on the island of Chios. The Daskalopetra monument, as it is called, was likely built sometime between the late 6th and early 5th centuries BCE. In the following decades, sanctuaries dedicated to Kybele appeared throughout the Greek world. These temples were even given a distinct name: Metroon.
One famous Metroon was in Athens, established next to the Boulè in the Agora. Its significance is evident from the fact that it was rebuilt after the Persians destroyed the original structure in 480 BCE. The Athenian Metroonalso served as a state archive, likely to invoke divine protection over the documents stored inside. Evidence suggests that the structure remained in use well into Late Antiquity. Other notable Metroa include one at Olympia and two in Asia Minor, at Kolophon and Smyrna, both of which were interestingly also used as state archives.
Excavated ruins of the Metroon in Athens.
Kybele was usually worshipped alongside her youthful consort, Attis. Attis is also a deity whose cult dates back to the Late Bronze Age. He originally was a local vegetation god associated with Pessinus. According to myth, Attis castrated himself, died, and resurrected. This was interpreted as a symbolic reference to the fruits of the earth, which die during winter and are reborn in spring. The story of Attis and Kybele was later popularized in literature through Catullus, who wrote a piece of 93 galliambic verses about Attis' self-mutilation.
Self-castration became a defining feature of the priests of Kybele. One could only be admitted to this priestly order after undergoing the harrowing ritual of self-castration. It was believed that sacrificing this body part granted the priests the power of prophecy. Another explanation for this self-mutilation was that it allowed the priests to maintain celibacy, enabling them to devote all their attention to Kybele. The priests of Kybele came to be known as Galli/Galloi, a term derived from the river Gallus, the earlier mentioned tributary of the Sakarya River, along which Pessinus was located. According to tradition, during a specific ritual, the priests drank from the stream, which inspired them with a frenzy.
In Rome, the Galli became an important college of priests, distinct from the other pontifices (priests) in that Roman citizens were completely excluded from this group. The Galli all came from Phrygia and were led by the so-called Archigallus. There were also Galloi in Asia Minor and Syria, known for traveling around and entertaining the masses with their ecstatic dances.
This ecstatic nature was also a key attribute of Kybele’s cult . She was often imagined as being accompanied by wild music and wine, followed by an entourage of men and women who had lost all self-control. This frenzy frequently led to acts of self-mutilation, an apparent reference to Attis. One theory suggests that this 'wild' aspect of Kybele’s cult originates from her association with the Cretan deity Rhea, whose worship also featured raucous, ecstatic rituals. The trance experienced by Kybele’s adherents was likely intended as a form of self-purification.
Cybele in a chariot driven by Nike and drawn by lions toward a votive sacrifice (right); above are heavenly symbols including a solar deity, Plaque from Ai Khanoum, Bactria (Afghanistan), 2nd century BCE
In literature, art, and other sources, Kybele is often depicted riding a chariot pulled by lions. One such famous representation can be admired at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The piece dates to the second half of the 2nd century CE. In this sculpture, the lions appear to have spouts emerging from their mouths, suggesting that the bronze work may have once been part of a fountain. Other theories propose that these spouts were designed to release steam or pour out other liquids instead of just water. Regardless of its original function, the piece is a remarkable example of the high quality of ancient Roman bronze sculpture and simultaneously highlights the popularity of Kybele’s cult in the ancient world, as the bronze is one of the countless artistic representations of the goddess dating back to antiquity.
Olivier Goossens
Read more:
-Roller, L., In Search of God the Mother: The Cult of Anatolian Cybele, 1999.
-Merrill, E., Catullus, 1893.
- Beard, M., "The Roman and the foreign: the cult of the "great mother" in imperial Rome", Shamanism, history, and the state, eds. N. Thomas & C. Hymphrey, 1994, pp. 164–190.
- Roscoe, W., "Priests of the Goddess: Gender Transgression in Ancient Religion", History of Religions, Vol. 35, 1969, pp. 195–230.
-Lane, E. (ed.), Cybele, Attis, and Related Cults: Essays in Memory of M.J. Vermaseren, 1996.
- Alvar, J., Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, Salvation and Ethics in the Cults of Cybele, Isis and Mithras, 2008.
