Study Refs

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns in Irish do not inflect for case, but there are three different sets of pronouns used: conjunctive, disjunctive and copula forms, each of which may be emphatic.

Conjunctive Forms

The normal word order in Irish is verb–subject–object. The forms of the subject pronoun directly following the verb are called conjunctive:

The form muid in the 1st person plural is not used in the standard language, but is very common in western and northern dialects. The standard and southern dialects have no subject pronoun in the 1st person plural but use synthetic verb endings instead.

Disjunctive forms

If a pronoun is not the subject or if a subject pronoun does not follow the verb (as in a verbless clause, or as the subject of the copula, where the pronoun stands at the end of the sentence), the so-called disjunctive forms are used:

Copula Forms

Identical to the object form, except tú mostly appears unlenited and there is here a neuter pronoun ea. They are used if the pronoun is the subject/predicate (or subsubject/subpredicate) of a copular clause: is tusa a rinne é = it was you who did it.

Emphatic Forms

Subject, Object or Copular pronouns may also occur as an emphatic form, that is, a pronoun with a bit more weight or emphasis.

The forms thusa, eisean and ise are disjunctive forms, while tusa, seisean and sise are conjunctive forms. Like English, relexive pronouns can also be used to add emphasis: Rinne mé féin é, I did it myself.

Personal Pronouns

So in short, personal pronouns may be summarized as:

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are easily constructed by adding féin after the relevant pronoun.

These are then added after the verb and pronoun. For example: Ním mé féin I wash myself, Ghortaigh sé é féin he hurt himself.

Resources

In Irish, there are three systems of numbers: disjunctive (maoluimhreacha), general conjunctive (bunuimhreacha) and human conjunctive (uimhreacha pearsanta).

1. Disjunctive numbers (maoluimhreacha)

These are used when the number is not immediately followed by a noun, such as:

counting (“one, two, three”)

arithmetic (“two plus two is four”)

telling time (“it is a quarter to five”)

phone numbers (“call me at 555-1234”)

after nouns (“bus 13”, “channel 6”)

If the number is less than 20, the root word is preceded by the word a (thoes beginning with a vowel also have a h added). For the numbers 11 to 19, the unit (one to nine) is written first, followed by déag (-teen). The number 12 is an exception, déag needs to be lenited.

2. General conjunctive numbers (bunuimhreacha)

These come before a noun and are used to count the amount of things that are present. In almost all situations, the singular version of the noun and not the plural version is used.

For 1-6, the number is placed before the noun, and the noun is lenited: trí gheata. For 7-10, the number is placed before the noun, and the noun is eclipsed: deich ngeata.

For 11-19 the unit (one to nine) is placed before the noun, with the noun being lenited or eclipsed as above, and déag (-teen) is placed after the noun: aon bhuachaill déag. If the noun ends with a vowel, déag should be lenited: trí oráiste dhéag.

For 20+ the unit (one to nine) is placed before the noun, with the noun being lenited or eclipsed as above. The noun is followed by the word is (and), plus the appropriate multiple of ten such as 20, 30, 40 or similar : ceithre chat is fiche. If the number is a multiple of ten (20, 30, 40 or similar), the number is simply placed before the noun with no change of spelling: caoga madra.

An exception applies for nine particular nouns which must be used in the plural form.

3. Human conjunctive numbers (uimhreacha pearsanta)

These are used to count people from two up to twelve.

Note that duine in 1 and 11 is not lenited. For all other numbers of people you use the general conjunctive numbers as before: trí dhuine dhéag.

In fact, these numbers are nouns themselves. If they are followed by the word that is being counted, that word goes into the genitive plural. The number used for two people, beirt, is feminine so it causes the following noun to be lenited, except when the noun begins with d, t or s: beirt bhuachaillí. All the others are masculine and do not cause lenition: cúigear fear.

These numbers are used on their own when referring to people in the generic sense: bhí triúr ann three people were there. Thus, it is incorrect to refer to triúr daoine.

Like Russian, Nouns in Irish have different forms depending on their gender (masculine or feminine), number (singular or plural), and case. So far we have been using the nominative case (tuiseal ainmneach) which is used for the subjects and objects of sentences.

The genitive case (tuiseal ginideach) is used to demonstrate a relationship between two nouns. It can often be translated literally as of and is used:

to express ownership

after the verbal noun

after some prepositions, like tar éis or os comhair

after some adverbs, like go leor or níos mó

Just as when forming a plural, the ending of a noun may change when writing the genitive form, and most nouns obey a regular pattern.

an hata (the hat) + an fear (the man) = hata an fhir (the man’s hat, literally the hat of the man).

Note that the definite article is used only once. As with fir, the genitive singular is spelled identically as the nominative singular. This can occur for some plural nouns also, but it is always clear from the context which case is being used.

As for the genitive plural, there are many rules to how it is formed and these are best learned by observing patterns. The plural form in the genitive is eclipsed when possible, i.e. hata na bhfear. In the following example, the vowel groups change from broad to slender and vice versa [ea] to [i].

For feminine nouns, the definite article na is used in both the genitive singular and genitive plural:

Declensions

All nouns in Irish belong to one of five groups called declensions (díochlaonta). Nouns in each declension follow similar rules for the way they form the genitive and the plural, although there are often exceptions. Most dictionaries indicate the declension to which a given noun belongs.

The first declension

These nouns are all masculine and end with broad consonants. In the genitive singular, the last consonant is slenderised by swapping the vowels or adding an extra -i. Some of these nouns end in -ach; the genitive singular for these nouns will change this to -aigh.

The second declension

These nouns are all feminine. Some end in broad consonants and some end in slender consonants. The genitive singular will usually end in -e. Some of these nouns end in -ach; the genitive singular for these nouns will change this to -aí.

The third declension

Some end in -óir, -éir or -úir; these are masculine. Others end in -íocht, -acht or -int; these are feminine (with the exception of some short words like acht or ceacht which are masculine). The genitive singular ends in -a.

The fourth declension

These end in -ín or with a vowel. They can be either masculine or feminine. For these nouns, the genitive is identical to the nominative.

The fifth declension

Prepositions (réamhfhocail) are short words that express relationships between things, like to, for, with, on, between. In Irish most prepositions are usually written on their own, but when you use them together with a pronoun (me, you, he, she, it, us, them), the two words get contracted together to make what are known as prepositional pronouns (forainmneacha réamhfhoclacha).

When used in specific ways, some prepositions have special idiomatic meanings in Irish. We already seen the idiomatic use of ag to mean have; here are some other examples.

Ar

The basic meaning of this word is on. For example, Ritheann sé ar bhóthar means He runs on a road. 

When used with the verb bí, it conveys the idea of obligation to do something. For example, Tá orm rith means I must run (literally “It is on me to run”).

Ó

The basic meaning of this word is from. For example, Ritheann sé ó theach means He runs from a house.

When used with the verb bí, it conveys the idea of wanting something. For example, Tá bia uaim means I want food (literally “food is from me”).

Another way to express wanting something is to use the verb teastaigh (to be wanted/needed), followed by a version of ó. Written this way, Teastaíonn bia uaim is the alternative way to say I want food; it can also mean I need food (literally “food is needed from me”).

I

The basic meaning of this word is in. When the next word begins with a vowel, you write in instead of i. For example, Ritheann sé i bpáirc means He runs in a field, and Oibríonn sé in ospidéal means He works in a hospital.

When used with special forms of the verb bí, it is possible to use this preposition to describe what something is, instead of using the copula is. For example, Is dochtúir é = He is a doctor = “[It is] a doctor that is in him” = Dochtúir atá ann.

Faoi

The basic meaning of this word is under or about. For example, Ritheann sé faoi dhroichead means He runs under a bridge, and Léann sé faoi eolaíocht means He reads about science.

When used with the verb bí, it conveys the idea of intention to do something, or planning to do something. For example, Tá fúm rith means I intend to run (literally “It is about me to run”).

Idir

This normally means between. In this case, no lenition occurs, for example tá an cat idir madra agus éan means the cat is between a dog and a bird andithim seacláid idir béilí means I eat chocolate between meals.

To ask a question in the present habitual tense using a verb, we use the question word an and add an eclipsis (urú) to the verb if possible.

To put a verb in the present habitual tense into the negative form, we use the negation word ní and add a lenition (séimhiú) to the verb if possible.

Like the English W question words such as who, where, what etc., we can also ask questions in Irish using the C question words cé, cá, cad etc.

When possessives are used in Irish, certain changes occur to the following noun. There are two systems: one for nouns starting with a consonant, and one for nouns starting with a vowel.

Nouns starting with a consonant

Before words starting with fh + a vowel, mo and do are abbreviated to m’ and d’, with no space before the next word. If the word begins with a consonant that does not undergo lenition (or eclipsis), the spelling remains unchanged.

Eg. m'fhón my phone mo léine my shirt

Nouns starting with a vowel

Urú

Urú (eclipsis) is where one or two letters are added before a word in certain situations. This changes the spelling and pronunciation of the word, but not the meaning. Only some initial letters can be eclipsed: b, c, d, f, g, p, and t. Words that begin with other letters do not undergo eclipsis at all.

Eclipsis is used in the following situations:

1. Possessive Adjectives Eclipsis occurs where a word comes after ár our, bhur your (plural), and a their.

2. Numbers Eclipsis occurs after the numbers seven to 10.

3. Preposition + Definite Article Eclipsis occurs after certain prepositions where they are joined by the definite article an:

Other prepositions used with an (for example, idir an between the) do not cause eclipsis.

4. Other Words Eclipsis is also added after the words i in, dá if, mura if/unless.

Words starting with a vowel Words that start with a vowel do not technically undergo eclipsis, but they do get the letter n- added to them wherever other words would be eclipsed — unless they come after a word that finishes with the letter n. A dash is placed between the letter n and the vowel — unless that vowel is a capital letter.

Séimhiú

Séimhiú (lenition) is where an extra letter h is added between the first and second letters of a word in certain situations. This changes the spelling and pronunciation of the word, but not the meaning. Only some initial letters can be lenited: b, c, d, f, g, m, p, s, and t. Words that begin with other letters do not undergo lenition at all.

Lenition is used in the following situations.

1. Feminine Nouns Feminine nouns are lenited after the definite article an in the nominative case. An exception to this rule is that feminine nouns beginning with d or t are not lenited. Another exception is that nouns beginning with s becomes ts if the s precedes a vowel, l, n or r.

2. Possessive Adjectives Lenition occurs after mo my, do your, a his.

3. Numbers Lenition occurs after the numbers one to six.

4. Vocative Case The vocative case is used when directly addressing someone or something, as in Cá bhfuil tú, a chailín? Where are you, girl? Lenition is used after the vocative particle a. Note that masculine nouns and names are also slenderised after the vocative particle: fear becomes a fhir, and Pól becomes a Phóil.

5. Prepositions Lenition occurs after the words ar on, de off, den off the, do to, don to the, faoi under/about, ó from, roimh before, sa/san in the, trí through, um around/about. An exception is that words beginning with d, t, s are not lenited after den, don, sa or san.

6. Other Words Lenition is also used after the phrase nuair a when, the prefixes ró- too and an- very, and the word má if (unless the next word is a version of tá or deir).

DeNTaLS-DoTS This is a handy mnemonic! If a word begins with d, t or s and it would normally be lenited according to the above rules, but the word that came before it in the sentence ends with d, n, t, l or s, then the word is not lenited.

Other Modifications

1. Words beginning with vowels If a masculine singular noun starts with a vowel, a t- is added at the start of the word after the definite article an (for example, uisce water, an t-uisce the water, am time, an t-am the time). A hyphen is placed between the letter t and the vowel —unless that vowel is a capital letter (for example, an tUachtarán the President). Exceptions include euro euro, iomad a great number, and oiread amount. These are written as an euro, an iomad and an oiread respectively.

If a plural noun starts with a vowel, a h is added at the start of the word after the definite article na (for example, ainmneacha names, na hainmneacha the names. No hyphen is used.

Alphabet

The Irish alphabet consists of only 18 letters

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u

while the vowels a, e, i, o and u have accented (with a fada) versions which are pronunciation longer.

Word Order

Compared to the “Subject - Verb - Object” word order, Irish uses “Verb - Subject - Object”. Thus Ólann sé uisce = He drinks water.

Pronouns

Definite and Indefinite Articles

There is no indefinite article in Irish, thus buachaill can mean either boy or a boy. There are, however, two forms of the definite article: an is used for singular nouns, while na is used for plural nouns (and feminine nouns in the genitive case).

Caol le caol agus leathan le leathan

This is the golden rule of Irish spelling (slender with slender and broad with broad). Like Russian, each consonant in Irish can represent two different sounds, called broad and slender, which are dependent upon the surrounding vowels.

The slender vowels in Irish are e, é, and i, í, and the broad vowels are a, á, o, ó, and u, ú. The rule says that the vowels on either side of any consonant should match: they should both be slender, or both be broad.

For example, the word folús has two broad vowels o and ú surrounding the constant l, while dóimaid is clearly incorrectly spelled as a slender vowel i and a broad vowel a surround the consonant m (the correct spelling is dóimid).

Nouns

Nouns in Irish are either masculine or feminine, the majority of which are masculine. The following is a general rule of thumb for nouns which are generally feminine:

nouns ending in a slender consonant

nouns ending in -eog, -óg, -lann

multi-syllable nouns ending in -acht or -íocht

names of countries and languages

abstract nouns ending in -e or -í

Noun Plurals

Like most languages, to be (bí) is one of the most important verbs, and describes the state of something that is right now. As in English, this verb only ever has a subject(s) and never has an object. 

¹In the present tense of bí, the pronouns mé and muid are often not used; they are incorporated into the verb tá instead, to make what is known as the “synthetic form”.

The Present Tense

Irish has two present tenses, the present habitual which describes what one does on a regular basis, and ___  what one is doing right now. Verbs in Irish are split into three main groups: the first conjugation, the second conjugation and the irregular verbs.

The verb endings depend upon if the root of the verb is broad or slender. For example, take the verbs dún and bris. The last vowel in dún is broad, so you would use broad endings when conjugating this verb. Similarly you would use slender endings when conjugating bris.

1. The First Conjugation

These verbs have only one syllable. In the present tense the ending is, for the most part, added directly onto the root of the verb. Examples are dún close, ól drink, bris break.

¹In present tense verbs, muid is often not used; it is incorporated into the verb that precedes it instead, to make what is known as the “synthetic form”.

2. The Second Conjugation 

These verbs have more than one syllable. Many second conjugation verbs end in -gh; when writing these in the present tense, the last syllable of the word is removed to get a root and the endings are then added to that root. Examples are ceannaigh buy, bailigh collect. The roots for these would be ceann-, bail-.

Other second conjugation verbs end in -il, -in, -is or -ir. To write these in the present tense the last syllable is removed except for the very last letter, and then the appropriate ending is added. Examples include inis tell, oscail open. The roots for these would be ins-, oscl-.

3. Irregular Verbs

The last group of verbs in Irish are the irregular verbs, of which there are only 11.

abair to say

beir to bear/carry/bring

bí to be

clois to hear

déan to do/make

feic to see

faigh to get

ith to eat

tabhair to give

tar to come

téigh to go

To have

There is no verb meaning to have in Irish. Instead the verb bí (be) is used, together with the preposition ag (at). So, to express that you have something, you say that it is “at you” - implying that it is close by you, in your possession. This is similar to у меня in Russian.

Thus, tá oráiste agam = I have an orange.

The copula

The copula is a special third form of to be. It is a defective verb, and it is used to say that two things are equal, or to describe that one thing belongs to a class or category of other things.

Procrastination happens when we delay doing things, and it's often connected to our emotions. Feelings like being afraid to fail, feeling worried or stressed, getting bored, or lacking motivation can all contribute to procrastination. To stop procrastinating and get more things done, it's important to learn how to handle our emotions better.

Boredom:

Break the task into smaller, more engaging sub-tasks.

Find ways to make the task more interesting or challenging.

Set a timer and work on the task for a specific amount of time, followed by a short break doing something enjoyable.

Feeling Overwhelmed:

Prioritize tasks and focus on one thing at a time.

Break the task into smaller, more manageable steps.

Delegate some parts of the task if possible or seek help from others.

Use tools like to-do lists or task management apps to stay organized.

Anxiety:

Practice deep breathing or mindfulness techniques to calm yourself.

Challenge negative thoughts and replace them with more positive and realistic ones.

Start with the easier or less intimidating aspects of the task to build momentum.

Set realistic expectations and remind yourself that it's okay to make mistakes.

Self-Doubt:

Focus on past accomplishments and successes to boost your confidence.

Seek support or feedback from others to gain reassurance.

Remind yourself of your skills and capabilities to tackle the task.

Use positive affirmations to counteract negative self-talk.

Perfectionism:

Embrace the concept of "good enough" rather than seeking perfection.

Set realistic and achievable goals for each task.

Recognize that mistakes and imperfections are part of the learning process and growth.

Indecisiveness:

Break decisions into smaller steps and make one small decision at a time.

Set a time limit for making decisions to avoid overthinking.

Trust your instincts and make the best decision you can with the information available.

Apathy or Lack of Interest:

Find aspects of the task that align with your values or long-term goals.

Break the task into smaller, more manageable parts and focus on completing one at a time.

Reward yourself for completing the task to make it more appealing.

Stress or Burnout:

Practice stress-reduction techniques such as meditation, exercise, or spending time in nature.

Break tasks into smaller steps to reduce the feeling of overwhelm.

Prioritize self-care and take breaks to avoid burnout.

Feeling Uninspired or Creatively Blocked:

Engage in activities that stimulate creativity, such as brainstorming, mind mapping, or seeking inspiration from others' work.

Start with a simple and basic version of the task to get the creative juices flowing.

Collaborate with others or seek feedback to gain new perspectives.

Fear of Success:

Identify and challenge the negative beliefs or fears that may be holding you back.

Visualize the positive outcomes of completing the task successfully.

Focus on the benefits and personal growth that come with success.

Impatience:

Break long-term goals into smaller milestones to track progress.

Practice mindfulness to stay present and patient throughout the process.

Remind yourself that progress takes time and effort.

Lack of Confidence:

Celebrate your past accomplishments to boost your confidence.

Seek support and encouragement from friends, family, or mentors.

Focus on building specific skills related to the task to increase confidence.

Avoiding Discomfort:

Acknowledge that discomfort is a natural part of growth and improvement.

Break tasks into smaller steps and tackle the more challenging aspects gradually.

Remind yourself of the long-term benefits of facing discomfort.

Overestimating Future Motivation:

Practice discipline and commit to starting tasks even when motivation is low.

Set specific deadlines for tasks to create a sense of urgency.

Ever wonder what your life would be like if you lived up to your full potential? Would your body be healthier? Your skin clearer? Bank account bigger? I think about these things all the time, and, judging my a previous post, you guys do to. Below is a chart designed to help all of us live up to our full potential. I’ve broken it down into time frames to help keep you from getting overwhelmed. Write the chart down and hang it someplace where you can see it all the time. I will be starting this challenge tomorrow, 9/8. I’ll check in with you guys every Sunday to track my progress. I have specific goals in mind for myself, and you guys should make some too! I really want to know how you guys are doing. Tag your progress posts with #sbfpc so I can track it and take a look. Let’s get to it!

EVERY MORNING

Stretch. First thing. Really give your body enough time to wake up. Touch your toes. Roll out your shoulders. Do not hit snooze!

Do your full skincare routine. I have mine detailed here, but do whatever works for you and your complexion. Be gentle and consistent. 

Brush your teeth and floss. I used to be a big floss-skipper too, but you’d be amazed at how dig of a difference it makes. Rinse with a whitening mouthwash. I use one by Crest, and I notice a major difference in my teeth’s overall whiteness in just a few days.

Give yourself enough time to get ready. Whether you’re a wash-and-go kind of girl, or someone who spends an hour doing a full contouring routine before class (and either one is fine!), make sure you aren’t rushing. If you need to wake up a few minutes earlier than normal, so be it. Rushing sets an awful, stressed-out tone for the rest of the day. Allow yourself to be relaxed before taking on the day.

Eat something. I’m not going to say eat a big breakfast, because some people (myself included) just can’t eat in the morning. But you should eat, or at least bring a little something with you to work or school. If you can’t eat a full breakfast, grab a fruit! You won’t be as hungry come lunch time, making you less likely to gorge yourself.

Shower. You can do this at night, in the morning, whatever. Again, this is something you should allow some time for. I don’t wash my hair every day, but I do condition it every day (from the ears down). Scrub yourself with a delicious-smelling body wash. If you shave, make yourself as smooth as a dolphin, dude. If you don’t, then don’t and don’t ever ever ever let anyone make you feel bad or weird about it. When you get out of the shower, wrap yourself in a fluffy towel and totally slather your sexy self with lotion. Top to bottom. Do it as soon as you can post-shower so it can really sink in. 

Put leave-in condition throughout your damp hair and comb it through.

Put on an outfit that makes you feel good! So important!

Drink water. Drink water. Drink water. Drink water!!!!!

Take a look at your daily to-do list. Knock out the most pressing stuff first. Take pride when you cross things off your list.

Make your bed! Oh my god, make your bed. Do it. Do it. Do it. 

EVERY AFTERNOON 

Follow the “touch it once” approach. This is a truly life-changing thing. When a task is in front of you, no matter how big or small, just do it right then and there. How many times have you gotten a work email or homework assignment and thought, “Eh, I’ll do it later”? And then later never comes? Once something pops up, do it once. Squash it and be done. Cross things off your list and feel like a badass.

Try to go for a walk at lunch. Even one little lap around the block or campus will reenergize you like nobody’s business. 

Drink water. Drink water. Drink water. Drink water!!!!!

Be present. This is so hard for me too, but you have to make a major effort to be present in whatever you’re doing. Be engaged and plugged-in and just exist in the moment. Give 100 percent.

Be friendly to friends and strangers. A smile goes a long way.

Eat something. Eat what you packed for lunch (see below) and take a break from working while you do it. You need “you time”!

EVERY EVENING

Take your makeup off as soon as you’re in for the night. Wash your face with your full routine and let your skin have a break. 

Workout. You can also do this in the morning. Whatever works for you. Make a great playlist and go hard af. Get your cardio in. Get your strength training in. Earn every freaking sweat bead forming on your forehead. Earn your shower!

Knock out your homework. Life is infinitely better you don’t have anything hanging over your head. Half the time, the energy and emotion you spent dreading/putting off your work is ten times worse than the work itself.

Make a list of what needs to be done tomorrow. It’ll set you up for success the next day, and you won’t forget anything!

Drink water. Drink water. Drink water. Drink water!!!!!

Lay out your clothes for tomorrow. This will save you SO MUCH TIME in the morning omg I can’t even tell you how important this is.

Eat something great. And once you’ve decided to be done eating for the night, be done. Brush your teeth so you can’t eat again.

After brushing, do a whitening treatment. Whether it’s classic baking soda, a Crest white strip, or a laser. Do something. And floss! Retainers in too, ladies 0:)

Relax! Take a few hours to do what YOU want to do. Scroll through Tumblr, binge on some Netflix, FaceTime gossip with your friends, anything. Do whatever makes you happiest. 

Shut the electronics off an hour before you want to go to bed. Put your phone on sleep mode. If you stare at the screen, it will keep you awake and alert and you won’t be able to fall asleep. A good night’s sleep is crucial for weightless and general happiness lol

Do a quick sweep of your room and see if there’s anything you can put away real quick. A clean space is a happy space.

Crawl into your bed (aren’t you happy you took the time to make it?!) and read a book by lamplight for a while. When you start to feel sleepy, go to sleep. Don’t push it. You kicked ass today and you deserve rest. 

EVERY WEEKEND

Do something with your friends. It just has to be one thing. Even if you’re just hanging out at the coffee shop, spending time with your squad will make you a better, happier person.

Drink water. Drink water. Drink water. Drink water!!!!!

Do something just for you. Set your laptop up in the bathroom and watch a Netflix marathon while you take a bubble bath. Buy an old school bottle of Mr. Bubbles ($3 at Target!) and really just soak. Relax. Light a candle.

Do something creative. You can read a book, write, blog, draw, code, anything. It just has to be something that speaks to your passion.

Track your progress. Just do this once a week so it doesn’t become all-consuming. And remember that non-scale victories are just as important as shedding pounds.

Take the time to be grateful. Tell your friend how much you admire her taste in music. Mention to your mom how much you love her cooking and how happy you are that she takes care of you. Thank your teaching after an especially interesting lecture. When you do something awesome, take a moment to admire yourself. Be grateful for even the little things.

take it easy but take it <- litany against burnout/apathy cycle

fuck it we ball <- litany against perfectionism