The Greek fire (ancient Greek Ὑγρὸν Πῦρ Hygròn Pýr, modern Greek Υγρό Υγρό Πυρ Igró Pir ‘liquid fire’) was a military firearm used in the Byzantine Empire since the 7th century. The name Greek fire (or ignis graecus) is not authentic; it was called πῦρ θαλάσσιον (pyr thalássion) sea fire or πῦρ ῥωμαϊκόν (pyr rhomaïkón) Roman fire by the Byzantines (who saw themselves as Romans).
This special weapon was used by the Byzantines in their numerous sea battles against the Ottomans. The dromons, which were Byzantine warships with two rows of oars similar to the Greek Triere, were equipped with a cauldron in which the liquid fire was located and sprayed onto the enemy ships with the help of a syringe. There were three systems for this.:
The so-called siphon, itis known that it was made of bronze, soldered with tin and fired from below. In addition a nozzle is visible on pictures. It was most probably a pressure vessel which was connected to the nozzle by a valve. Possibly the overpressure in the tank was maintained by a pump. Only two persons operated a weapon, the other crew members did not have the necessary training. Depending on their size, the dromons were equipped with up to three siphons.
An illustration of a so-called strepton shows that it is a hand-held device. It should preferably be used against wooden constructions such as siege towers. The name implies that it is a device with a kind of pumping or rotating mechanism.
Little is known about the cheirosiphon (handsiphon) more than what the name implies. It was intended for use directly against enemy soldiers.
In addition, there was the more conventional method of firing clay jugs filled with incendiary media with various centrifuge or catapult systems. These systems probably had a pilot flame.
The invention of the Greek fire is attributed in the sources to the Syrian architect Kallinikos (Καλλίνικος), who had fled from Heliopolis (today Lebanon) from the Arabs to Constantinople. Probably in 677 or shortly before, during a war with the Arabs, he succeeded in creating the Greek Fire system for the Dromons. This was of decisive importance in the defence against the Arab siege of Constantinople (674-678). Already in Late Antiquity, both on the Eastern Roman side and among Rome’s enemies, firearms had been constantly further developed and used. Thus, corresponding precursors seem to have been used shortly after 500 under Emperor Anastasius in the fight against the rebellious army master Vitalianus. Kallinikos resorted to these developments. His essential innovation, which in the end constituted the Greek fire, was the siphon, in modern terminology a kind of flamethrower. Even after Kallinikos the development continued. Thus handsiphon and strepton came into being at the end of the 9th or beginning of the 10th century.
The first traditional use took place during the siege of Constantinople by the Arabs, which lasted from 674 to 678, probably 677. The new weapon apparently contributed decisively to the fact that Byzantium was able to fend off the attackers - if this is true, it had an important influence on the course of world history, since Constantinople was able to prevent the penetration of Muslims into Europe in this way for centuries as a barrier bar. The fire quickly developed into one of the most feared weapons of the medieval world, with a great psychological effect.
According to contemporary reports, the use of Greek fire on the attacked ships must have caused an indescribable inferno. The use of the flamethrowers was accompanied by a thundering noise and, in view of the indelible fires that could be directed at will from the fire ship, no military discipline was possible on board any more. Another effect was that burning ships that retreated could also endanger their remaining fleet. Enemy ships therefore avoided approaching the Byzantine fleet in order not to get into the range of the fire. Otherwise the sight of a syringe often sufficed to drive the enemy into flight. However, the application could also set fire to own ships under certain circumstances.
Greek fire was largely responsible for the centuries-long naval rule of the Byzantine fleet in the eastern Mediterranean area; it ensured the independence of the empire even when it was already unable to set up powerful land forces due to the decreasing population and area.
The last documented use of Greek fire was in 1187 during the uprising of Alexios Branas. After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 the knowledge about it is definitely lost. The absence of a mention despite many armed conflicts, however, makes the infamous looting of Constantinople in 1204 by the Crusaders appear as a plausible trigger for this loss.
The exact nature of the liquid fire cannot be said as this weapon was kept under strict secrecy and was not passed on to anyone. There are only a few sources that mention that the mixture was based on petroleum or asphalt, but not on any other material. These substances appeared in the Byzantine Empire near the Black Sea on the earth’s surface. Further, not always present components were tree resin, sulphur and burnt lime, from the 10th century probably also saltpetre. However, the details of the production are not known. The frequently assumed self-ignition of the mixture in the water is not proven and would have made the weapon unsafe to handle. However, there was a variant called Pyr automaton which was said to have been flammable with water because it contained burnt lime.
Bart De Graeve: Het Griekse vuur: de realiteit achter de mythe. 2001,
Jochen Gartz: Vom griechischen Feuer zum Dynamit. Eine Kulturgeschichte der Explosivstoffe. E. S. Mittler & Sohn, Hamburg u. a. 2007
Erich Gabriel: Griechisches Feuer. In: Robert Auty u. a. (Hrsg.): Lexikon des Mittelalters. Band 4: Erzkanzler bis Hiddensee. Artemis-Verlag, München u. a. 1989
John Haldon: ‚Greek fire‘ revisited: recent and current research. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys (Hrsg.): Byzantine style, religion and civilization. In honour of Sir Steven Ruciman. Cambridge University Press, New York NY u. a. 2006
Johannes Preiser-Kapeller: Wunderwaffe des Mittelalters? Geschichte und Theorie des Griechischen Feuers. In: Combat. Bd. 3, 2007
Peter Schreiner: Griechisches Feuer in Tours. Bemerkungen zu einer wenig beachteten lateinischen Notiz. In: Néa Rhóme. Bd. 9, 2012
https://www.militaer-wissen.de/das-griechische-feuer/
http://www.history-blog.at/history-world/106-das-fluessige-feuer.html
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