under the bracken

During the Rauhnächte the world follows different rules than usual. The veil between the worlds is thin and spirits roam the Earth... ✨ In this post I provide an overview of what the Rauhnächte are and what is said to happen during this time of year. I cover some traditions and list a few ideas for activities.

The word Rauhnächte, from the Germanic pagan and folk tradition, refers to the twelve nights in between the years. The word itself has two possible origins. 1) Rauh may be derived from Rauch (smoke), alluding to the practice of burning icense and herbs during this time, or 2) the Middle High German word rûch which means 'wild' or 'hairy'.

The Rauhnächte were first mentioned in documents in the 16th century and may originate in the need to even out the lunar and the solar year. A solar year is made up of the 365 days it takes for the Earth to oribit around the Sun. Yet, a lunar year, consisting of twelve moon cycles, has only 354 days which means that it is 11 days and 12 nights shorter than a solar year. These twelve nights, the Rauhnächte, which fall outside time are 'dead' days in which other rules apply than usual and the veil between the worlds is thin.

The exact dates vary depending on region. But usually these twelve nights fall either in between December 21 (Winter Solstice) and January 1, or they begin with Christmas Day on December 25 and end with Epiphany on January 6. In some regions a night begins at midnight, thus the Rauhnächte begin at midnight in the night from December 20 (24) to 21 (25) and end at midnight in the night from December 31 (January 5) to January 1 (6). In other regions a night begins at dusk and ends at dawn. So, the Rauhnächte begin at dusk on December 21 (25) and end at dawn on January 1 (6).

After the Winter Solstice, the days are getting longer again. Yet, this will not be noticeable for some time yet and the hardest part of winter lies still ahead. It is a time in which darkness and light battle against each other, a time of calm and introspection, of reflection but also hope and new beginnings.

What happens during the Rauhnächte?

It is said that during the Rauhnächte, Odin (Wotan) and Frau Holle (Holda, Hyldemoer) lead the Wild Hunt through the skies followed by all sorts of creatures and spirits. In some accounts, the Wild Hunt is out in search after the sun; in others, they chase after lost souls or collect the souls of those who died during the year. Wherever they ride, they bring storms with them but they also bring fertility to the lands that Odin's horse treads on.

[Frau Holle, who is also known as Holda or, in Denmark, as Hyldemoer, is a goddess or spirit related to the elder tree which is reflected in the German word for elder: Holunder or Holler. She is possibly connected to the Scandinavian huldra. In the Alps region, she is known as Percht or Bercht, a name which is derived from the Middle High German word peratum, 'light'. She makes sure that people keep good order and accompanies the souls of the dead to the Other World.]

On the last day of the Rauhnächte, Holda (or sometimes the triple Goddess) appears again and blesses the houses of the people. We can see this tradition reflected in the Christian star singers who, dressed up as kings Casper, Melchior and Balthasar, go from house to house blessing them.

If you give animals an extra portion of food at midnight you may be able to understand what they are saying.

Encounters with spirits

Do not leave (white) laundry out to dry during this time. Members of the Wild Hunt and malevolent spirits can get caught in them and wreak havoc. Others warn that Odin may take some of the laundry with him and use it in the coming year as a burial cloth for its owner. If you encounter a spirit, it is best to show no fear and tell them to leave. It may also help if you give them a few copper coins. You can avoid this altogether by staying indoors after dark or taking a (blessed) light with you if you do go outside.

Yet, not all spirits are malevolent. Some spirits may enter your house and upon receiving food offerings bring good luck and prosperity.

Loud noise is supposed to keep malevolent spirits at bay - that's why we have fireworks on New Year's. In the Alps region, young men sometimes dress up as Perchten, the followers of Percht (Holda) and go on processions wearing terrifying masks, bearing torches and making a lot of noise to drive away the dark. They occasionally also dance on the fields to awaken the Earth, symbolising the fertility the Wild Hunt brings to the land.

Smoke

As the veil is so thin now, this time is perfect for spirit work but cleansing and banishing are equally important. The incense and herbs that are burned can offer protection but can also be used for blessing.

Juniper, a plant associated with the Other World, nature spirits and the norns, is often used for protection against malevolent spirits. So is mugwort, one of the oldest European incense herbs. Garden sage, laurel, thyme, ceder and pine can also be used for cleansing and protection.

Some people work with smoke for cleansing and blessing on every day of the Rauhnächte. Others use incense only on a few particular days, usually December 21, 24, 31 and January 6, and sometimes even on December 6 and 13.

Divination

❄️ At the crossroads at midnight… … you can predict the future, if you know how to read the signs. … you can conjure spirits and ask them about the future. … you may catch a glimpse of your (future) lover. But do not speak or you might also catch Death's attention.

❄️ The twelve Rauhnächte symbolically stand for the coming twelve months which means that… … the weather on each day gives you insights into the overall weather that can be expected during the corresponding month. … you can use your dreams each night and the general mood or atmosphere during the days to foretell what will happen during the next year.

❄️ To predict the weather of the coming months, you can also use an onion oracle. Cut a large onion lengthwise through the middle. Take six layers out of each half and place them next to each other on a plate. Each of the twelve onion slices represents one month, the first one January, the second one February etc. Pour some salt on each piece of onion - make sure it is approximately the same amount for each slice. The next morning, check how much moisture the onion slices have released. The more moisture has been released, the more rain you can expect in the corresponding month.

❄️ Barbara branches are cut from a cherry tree on December 4 and placed in water. Each branch represents one specific person. If a branch blooms by Yule, the person is likely to have good luck in the coming year and can expect a good harvest. The scientific explanation for Barbara branches indicating whether next year's harvest will be a good or bad is that buds already form in autumn. By bringing a branch inside and making it bloom early, we quite literally get a sneak peak into the future.

❄️ Another tradition to predict good luck is to bake a coin into a bread or cake. The person who finds the coin will have much good luck in the coming year. This is similar to the galette des rois which is traditionally eaten in France on January 6. In a similar tradition an almond is mixed into the Yule porridge or rice pudding. Whoever gets the almond in their portion will soon get married.

❄️ In Germany, molybdomancy (lead-pouring) is a popular New Year's tradition. It dates back to the Romans and was recently banned due to the toxicity of the lead that is poured into cold water so that the future can be read based on the shapes that form. A healthier and more environmentally friendly alternative is wax pouring. This way you can also use up the ends of candles left over from your Yule decorations. Preferably, use bees' or a plant-based wax as paraffin wax, too, is not the healthiest and most sustainable option.

Put some wax on a teaspoon and melt it over a candle.

Pour the wax into cold water (the colder the water the quicker the wax solidifies) in one smooth motion. If you pour too slowly, you will end up with a lot of small lumps that are impossible to read.

Take a look at the solidified wax, or hold it against some light and try to identify a concrete shape of the shadow it casts.

Interpret your shape, see here.

Other traditions and activities as well as general advice for the Rauhnächte

Do not swear, curse, argue or slam doors.

Place a light in your window each night to keep away malevolent spirits or uneasy souls trying to use your home to hide from the Wild Hunt.

It is said that if lovers spend much time together during the Rauhnächte, their bond will strengthen.

Be generous. Don't refuse beggars or other people in need. Even burned food used to be thrown into the hearth fire and was thus symbolically given to the pour souls roaming through the cold winter night.

Settle your debts. Pay your bills. Resolve conflicts.

Wheels were supposed to rest during this time. Of course, if you need to go somewhere there is no reason why you should not take your bike or get on a bus. But this tradition can be understood in the sense that one should rest and reflect instead of work. That way we might also be able to stop certain thoughts from spinning around in circles in our heads.

✨

Contact spirits, ancestors, and deities. Connect with and petition your spirit guides.

Make offerings to the spirits, Frau Holle, Odin and their Wild Hunt, i.e., nuts, honey, apples, rice pudding, porridge, milk.

Keep a journal of the weather, dreams and moods, the general atmosphere of each day to predict what will happen during the next twelve months.

You can make a year mandala: Draw a circle and divide it into twelve equal sections each symbolising one month. Over the Rauhnächte you can fill each section with images and/or words symbolising your predictions: i.e., oracle or tarot cards you draw, observations about the weather and what you remember from your dreams.

Smoke cleansing and protection magic.

Food and house blessings.

Tell stories. And listen!

Meditate. You can, i.e., do a meditation in front of a lit candle and set an intention of what you will let go of, and what you want to work towards in the coming year. You could also incorporate these into two larger rituals, one during the first Rauhnacht and one during the last.

Go on a Year Walk (årsgång).

Årsgång or Årsvandring

The year walk is a Scandinavian folk tradition of taking a solitary night-time walk in the forest to gain knowledge of the future dating. The tradition is first mentioned in a manuscript from Småland dating to 1697-1700. Yet in this document the årsgång is described as an old custom, and it may even date back to pre-Christian times. It is usually undertaken during on of the Rauhnächte, most commonly Yule or New Year's Eve. The ritual often includes fasting for 24 hours prior to the walk, or at least starting in the afternoon - only water is allowed. Speaking is discouraged as well, sometimes even before the walk but most definitely during it.

At midnight, or when darkness has fallen, you enter the forest where you pause to meditate. As you walk - without talking or looking back, and most commonly with a church as your destination - you may encounter various entities some of which may try to make you speak or laugh so that your year walk fails. The ritual ends once you reach the church and blow into the keyhole, temporarily renounce your faith if you are Christian, and look through one of the windows where you may see visions of the coming year. Other accounts relate that the walker, while walking, can see future funeral processions on church roads, the next harvest by looking at the fields as well as other events in other places.

Of course this ritual can be adapted. Leave out the church, swap the forest for a meadow, …

Common symbols of good luck connected to the Rauhnächte, and New Year's in particular

In the time between the years little marzipan figures depicting pigs, four-leaved clovers, toadstools, horse shoes and chimney sweepers are often given as gifts.

🐗The pig has a long history as a symbol for good luck. Both Frey and Freyja of the Vanir (Norse gods of fertility and peace) are connected to this symbol.

🍀The four-leaved clover represents a cross, which in turn stands for the four cardinal directions, as well as midday, midnight, dusk and dawn.

🐎The horse shoe stands in connection to the Wild Hunt symbolising the fertility-bringing hoof prints of Odin's horse, Sleipnir.

🍄It is said that where foam from Sleipnir's mouth falls on the ground fly agaric mushrooms grow. In some regions of Scandinavia they are therefore also called Munins tugga ('food of Munin') or 'Raven's Bread'. The fly agaric is a sacred psychedelic mushroom with a string connection to the Winter Solstice. It may even have contributed to the legend of Santa Claus (see Inkwright, 2021 for more information).

🎩The chimney sweeper does not only prevent fire but also keeps the entrance of the benevolent spirits clean and prevents malevolent spirits from hiding in the soot. In Western Europe they are sometimes depicted with some holly, which as an evergreen plant symbolises life and can be used to sweep a chimney.

Sources

Claudia Müller-Ebeling (2009) Raunächte - Erinnerung an ferne Zeiten.

Fez Inkwright (2021) Botanical Curses and Poisons: The Shadow-Lives of Plants.

Foodicles (2018) Galette des Rois: A History of the French King Cake.

Helga Stützenberger (2019) So funktioniert das Zwiebelorakel.

Monika Mańczyk-Krygiel (2018) Zwischen den Welten. Zur Präsenz des alpinen Mythos von den Saligen bei Paula Grogger.

Ráven Myrkwoóð (2020) Årsgång – The Year Walk For Prophecy.

Sophie Boleyn (2021) Die Rauhnächte | Geschichte Kompakt.

Tommy Kuusela (2016) '"He Met His Own Funeral Procession": The Year Walk Ritual in Swedish Folk Tradition', in Tommy Kuusela & Giuseppe Maiello (eds.) Folk Belief and Tradition of the Supernatural, pp. 58-91.

Utopia (2020) Bleigießen wurde verboten: Das sind bessere Alternativen.

Utopia (2021) Wachsgießen statt Bleigießen: Silverster bleifrei feiern.

Vera Griebert-Schröder & Franziska Muri (2012) Vom Zauber der Rauhnächte: Weissagungen, Bräuche und Rituale für die Zeit zwischen den Jahren.

There are different, at times overlapping, forms of magic connected to Norse mythology, culture and society. Some are easily accessible to anyone, others require more specific training and skills. Someone who is very skilled in magic, and can combine its different branches, may be called fjölkunning, 'much knowing'. Below I provide an overview over the different aspects of magic in the Norse context and I plan on going into more detail in some future posts on the individual types of magic.

Important to understanding magic in a Norse context are the concepts of animism and the Norse understanding of fate. Animism refers to the belief that everything in nature is alive and interconnected. Connected to the animistic nature of Norse believes is the existence of a multitude of spirits (landvættir, huldafolk, fylgjur etc.) in Norse mythology. In the Norse belief system all beings, even the deities, are subjected to fate which is carved into the roots of the tree Yggdrasil by the three Norns. There is no moral aspect to this fate; whether you do good or evil, your fate won't change and trying to resist it will lead nowhere. What matters however is how we meet our fate.

Seiðr

Magic in the form of seiðr can be used for two purposes: 1) to see how someone's fate will unfold; 2) to change those aspects of life that are not predetermined by fate. Seiðr is probably the most researched form of Norse magic and it is described in the Ynglingasaga as ‘the art in which the greatest power is lodged’. It has been compared to and described as Norse shamanism as it involves the moving between worlds through an altered state of consciousness or a trance-like state.

The seiðr-worker (a vǫlva or völva, sometimes also spákona which translates to 'seeress', or a thulr which the debated meaning of either 'seer' or 'magic worker') uses specific chants (vardlokkur) to call upon the spirits and induce a trance-like state. The seiðr-worker then communicates with the spirits to gain knowledge about the future and/or to bring about change. They then communicate the knowledge they gained and answer questions through chanting (kveda) while still in trance. Inseparable from the seiðr-worker is their staff mad of either wood or iron.

In the written sources seiðr is described as a women's practice as seiðr when practiced by men is ergi/ results in ergi. While we do not know for certain what exactly ergi means, it has often been translated as 'unmanly' or 'cowardice' and connected to sexual perversion, passive male homosexuality and the breaking of serious social taboos. More recently the perspective emerged that seiðr has been become understood as unmanly since it involves the letting go of ego and the surrender to the ecstatic energy flowing through the seiðr-worker during a powerful seiðr ritual which is at odds with hegemonic male gender norms. Descriptions of seiðr as unmanly, ergi or just for women must thus be seen in connection to the social context in which it is described as such (i.e., the period during which the Eddas were written down and during which Scandinavia had already been Christianised). Seiðr can thus be practiced by anyone regardless of their gender, and while it was mostly women who practiced seiðr during the Viking age not all seiðr-workers were female.

Útiseta

Útiseta is a practice that overlaps with seiðr, it requires however no particular training and is thus accessible to all. The word literally translates to 'out-sitting'. The 'out' here refers to both leaving the material world and accessing the spirit realm to communicate with ancestors, spirits and deities, as well as to the practice taking place in isolation usually somewhere in nature. The person doing an útiseta usually fasts and remains awake for a certain period of time (i.e., from sunset to sunrise) while using alternations of chanting and silent meditation to gain wisdom from ancestors, other spirits and deities. An útiseta may involve 'going under the cloak' in which one covers oneself - at least the face - with a cloak or similar.

Galdr

The chanting or singing of spells and incantation is referred to as galdr. Its magic works through the words that are chanted as well as through the melody. Galdr spells are possibly written in a specific meter called galdralag. It is also possible that some galdr chants included no words at all.

Runes

Runes are often associated with divination but they can also be used to work magic. This practice requires in-depth knowledge of the runes and how to use them. In the Hávamál it is written, indicating the required skills:

Do you know how to cut/carve? Do you know how to read? Do you know how to stain/colour? Do you know how to wield/pray? Do you know how to invoke? Do you know how to sacrifice [blót]? Do you know how to offer/send? Do you know how to stop the breath?

On stanza of the Sigrdrífunmál describes runes that are carved into or inscribed on wood. They are then scraped off and mixed with mead. Runes can also be inscribed on objects or worn inscribed on an amulet.

Gand

Gand refers to the enchantment of something or someone, in particular an object which is enchanted and from which magical power can then be drawn. In the late Middle Ages gand was used almost exclusively to refer to magical wands.

Disclaimer

Norse mythology has been and still is misrepresented and appropriated by Nazis and white-supremacists based on the fantasy of the tall, muscular, blond and blue-eyed Viking in a highly masculinist, cis- and heteronormative society. The Vikings travelled from Scandinavia all the way to Greenland and North America, to Great Britain and all the way to the Mediterranean region and the Caspian Sea. This resulted in a genetic diversity which debunks the fascist fantasy of the Viking. Likewise our interpretations of gender (norms) and sexuality in pre-Christian societies are strongly influenced by the gender norms and views on sexuality which are predominant during the time research is carried out. Thus, for instance, gender in Viking age society was probably by far more fluid then researchers assumed for the longest time.

The word shaman is derived from the Tungus word saman and as such is a culture-specific term which refers first and foremost to the samans of central Siberia and their practices. Thus, other cultures have their own culture-specific terms for their ‘shamans’, i.e., the Sámi noaidi. In the 18th century the term ‘shaman(ism)’ began to be used increasingly as a general term to refer to a multitude of very different and diverse practices and believes that through the use of this essentialised concept are misrepresented as a global, static and ‘primaeval’ practice.

To sum up: Nazis, f*ck off! And also reflexivity and critical thinking is essential.

Sources and further reading

BBC Reel (2021) Ancient DNA reveals the truth about Vikings.

Bell, Jacob (2021) 'Magic, Genderfluidity, and queer Vikings, ca. 750-1050', History Compass, 19(5), pp. 1-9.

Blain, Jenny (1999) 'Seiðr as Shamanistic Practice: Reconstituting a Tradition of Ambiguity', Shaman, 7(2), pp. 99-122.

Blain, Jenny (2005) '"Now many of those things are shown to me which I was denied before": Seidr, shamanism and journeying, past and present', Studies in Religion, 34(1), pp. 81-98.

Blain, Jenny & Robert J. Wallis (2000) 'The "Ergi" Seidman: Contestations of Gender, Shamanism and Sexuality in Northern Religion Past and Present', Journal of Contemporary Religion, 15(3), pp. 395-411.

Brunning, Sue (2016) 'A "Divination Staff" from Viking-Age Norway at the British Museum', Acta Archaeologica, 87(1), pp. 193-200.

Gardeła, Leszek (2008) 'Into Viking Minds: Reinterpreting the Staffs of Sorcery and Unravelling Seiðr ', Viking and Medieval Scandinavia, 4, pp. 45-84.

Høst, Annette (2022) SEIÐR - History, Craft and Modern Practice: [Teaser] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8].

Norse Mythology for Smart People.

Paxon, Diana L. (2017) Odin: Ecstasy, Runes & Norse Magic, Weiser Books.

Rysdyk, Evelyn C. (2016) The Norse Shaman: Ancient Spiritual Practices of the Northern Tradition, Destiny Books.

Tolley, Clive (1995) 'Vǫrðr and Gandr: Helping Spirits in Norse Magic', Arkiv för nordisk filologi, 110, pp. 56-75.

Feel free to change any part of this spell to make it your own.

Purpose:

Bring about abundance, love and success, and protect against all that may prevent them.

Ingredients:

2 eggs

2,5 dl sugar

75 g melted butter

2,5 dl flour

1 tsp baking powder

1 tsp vanilla sugar/ a pinch of vanilla

3-4 stalks of rhubarb (+ 2 tbsp sugar)

Instructions:

A good moment before starting the cake, cut the rhubarb in small pieces and stir through 2 tbsp of sugar. Set aside. (When coated in sugar the rhubarb will release liquid, preventing the cake from getting soggy.)

Preheat the oven to 190°C and grease a (shallow) baking tin.

Mix eggs and sugar until they are foamy. As you crack the eggs into a bowl and mix them with the sugar, envision how you (or someone else) succeed in your endeavours, concrete or in general. While doing so speak out loud:

May all your/my projects succeed, and success be sweet.

Stir in the other ingredients (apart from the rhubarb) and pour the dough into the baking tin.

Drain the liquid of the rhubarb. (Catch it in a glass - it's delicious!) Sprinkle the rhubarb generously over the cake dough. Picture either the love and abundance which you want to reinforce, or the love and abundance that you wish to welcome into your life. Speak:

May I be protected from all harm, and love and abundance encharm.

Bake the cake for about 30 minutes.

Abellio

god of apple trees and the sun

equated with Apollo

worshipped in the Garonne valley

Belenus (Bel)

god of the sun

healing god

depicted with: horse; wheel (which may indicate that he was believed to pull the sun through the sky on a horse-drawn chariot)

his name may refer to either 'white'/ 'grey' (-> the sun) or 'strong'/ 'powerful', it may also have connections to the psychoactive plant henbane

often (but not always) equated with Apollo

worshipped from Italy to Britain (but mainly on the Adriatic coast) alongside the goddess Belisma

see also: Grannus, Maponos

Bormana

goddess of healing and (healthy) water

associated with boiling springs (her name means 'boiling')

consort of Borvo

worshipped and southern and eastern France

Borvo

god of healing

associated with boiling springs (his name means 'hot spring'/ 'warm source')

consort of Bormana

sometimes equated with Apollo

worshipped in (south- to north-eastern) France, as well as in the Netherlands, Portugal and Germany

Brigindo (Brigid)

goddess of healing, wisdom, poetry, smithcraft and domesticated animals

her name means 'the exalted one'

worship of her is now mostly associated with the British Isles

Grannus

god of healing (especially healing minerals)

associated with hot springs and the sun

sometimes connected to Sirona

probably equated with Apollo

worshipped in i.e., Germany (Aachen) and France (Auvergne, Limoges)

Icovellauna

goddess of healing

her name means 'good fountain'

the healing spring of Sablon at Metz (France) and the Altbachtal temple in Trier (Germany) are connected to her

Nemausius

patron god of Nîmes where a healing spring associated with him exists

the Nemausicae or Matres Nemausicae were also worhsipped there; they are fertility and healing goddesses

Sirona

goddess of healing and fertility

associated with hot springs and the sky (her name means 'star'. 'astral')

depicted with a snake and eggs

sometimes equated with Diana, at times worshipped in conjunction with Grannus

worshipped in the Moselle Valley in particular

see also: Belenus, Damona, Lenus, Sequena

Belisama

river goddess

the wandering goddess

potentially the companion of Belenus as their names are derived from the same root

equated with Minerva

worshipped in France (Provence, Ariège) and possibly also in Britain

Laha (Lahe)

goddess of springs and wells

sometimes compared to the Norse goddess Sága

worshipped in the Pyrenees region

Melusine

goddess (or spirit) of wells and rivers

often depicted as her lower body being that of a serpent or fish

There are many legends about her in France, the Benelux countries, Germany and Britain connecting her to Avalon and describing her as a shapeshifter who can turn into a dragon, serpent or mermaid

worshipped in France, the Benelux countries

Nehalennia

sea goddess of trading, shipping, and possibly horticulture and fertility

disputed origin and unclear meaning of her name

her name has been interpreted as meaning 'close', 'to lead' or 'salt'/ 'sea'/ 'she who is at the sea'

often depicted as a seated young woman, with marine objects (i.e., ship parts), benign-looking dogs, a basket of apples, sacrificial loaves of bread

worshipped in Zeeland (in the Netherlands), Germany (Cologne)

Ritona (Pritona)

patron goddess of fords

Her name is generally thought to mean 'that of the ford'. But sometimes it is also interpreted as 'that of the course'/ 'crossing the river' (-> ferrymen) which may be linked to the importance of divine assistance/ protection when crossing water.

Sequena

river goddess

goddess of healing: effigies of the affected body part were thrown into the river of quick recovery

she rides a duck/ duck-shaped boat on the river Seine

see also: Bormana, Nantosuelta

Ancamma (Ancamna)

goddess of war

worshipped in Germany (Trier), Luxembourg, the Moselle region

consort of Lenus

Camulos

war god

his name may mean 'champion'

equated with Mars

worshipped in north-eastern France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany and Britain

Cathubodua (Boudina)

warrior goddess

'battle crow', or 'fighting'/ 'victory'

related to Irish goddess Badb Catha (who foresees the fate of warriors before they go into battle), as well as potentially Nike (Greek) and Sigyn (Norse)

worshipped in eastern France, Austria, Slovenia

Esus (Hesus, Aisus)

god of war

patron of sailors

Some sources speak of a charm that was used to evoke Esus to cure throat troubles.

depicted as cutting branches from a tree with an axe, at times alongside Tarvos Trigaranus (the 'bull with three cranes') which may indicate that he was also a god of vegetation; The tree may symbolise the tree of life symbolising destruction, death in winter and rebirth in spring.

Possibly, human sacrifices were made to Esus by tying someone to a tree and flogging them to death.

potentially forms a triad with Teutates and Taranis

compared to Odin and Mars

Intarabus

local god of the Ardennes (France)

Not much is known about Intarabus, but it is suggested that he is a war god.

Lenus

war god (protector in battle)

healing god (providing good health and general good fortune)

associated with Mars (defender of the lands and even against diseases)

consort of Ancamma

worshipped in Germany, south-western Britain

Lugus

warrior god

name interpreted as 'black', 'to break' or 'to swear an oath'

depicted with birds (especially raven and rooster), horses, tree of life, dogs, wolves, a caduceus (staff with wings and two snakes winding around it carried by Hermes), mistletoe, shoes, bags of money; often armed with a spear and accompanied by Rosmerta

connected to Lugh: warrior, king, craftsman and saviour associated with oaths, truth and the law in Irish mythology

worshipped in France (Lyon which used to be called Lugdunum meaning 'fort of Lugus', Nîmes, Auvergne), Spain, Switzerland, Britain

Rigisamus

god of war

name means 'most royal'/ 'king of kings'

equated with Mars

worshipped in France, Britain

Taranis

god of storms

depicted with a wheel and often with a beard; The (chariot) wheel (with six or eight spokes) is an important Celtic symbol often associated with a specific wheel god (a sky, sun or thunder god). Also, archaeologists found many four-spokes wheel pendants which are also known as 'sun crosses'.

His name refers to 'thunder'.

(Human) sacrifices were made to him by drowning or burning.

equated with Jupiter

worshipped in France, Iberian peninsula, Britain, Ireland, Germany, the Danube region

Teutates (Toutatis)

god of war

tribal protector; his name means 'people' or 'tribe'

sacrifices were made to him by plunging the victims head-first into some kind of liquid

equated with Mercury (sometimes Mars)

worshipped in France, Benelux, Germany, Switzerland, Britain, northern Italy

Abnoba

goddess of the hunt, the moon and wildlife

Her name means 'river' or 'water'.

equated with Diana/ Artemis

worshipped in Switzerland, Germany (especially the Black Forest region)

Arduinna

goddess of forests and hunting

depicted as riding a wild boar

possibly equated with Diana/ Artemis

worshipped in France (particularly the Ardennes region), as well as Belgium, Luxembourg and possibly Germany and Italy

Artaius

bear god (his name means 'bear')

equated with Mercury, possible link to King Arthur/ Gwydion

worshipped in France

Artio (Andarta)

bear goddess

depicted as seated, a bowl of fruit in her lap, facing a bear

possibly equated with Diana/ Artemis

worshipped in France, Switzerland, Germany

Cernunnos

god of nature, animals and fruitfulness

His name means 'horn' or antler'

associated with deer, forests, stags, horned serpents, dogs, bulls and rats

often depicted cross-legged, with antlers, wearing or holding a torque, sometimes holding a bag of coins or grains and a cornucopia

He guides the diseased into the afterlife. He is the god of travel, commerce and bi-directionality (mediator between opposites).

associated with Herne the Hunter

worshipped in France, Luxembourg, Britain

Damona

goddess of animals, fertility, healing and abundance

Her name has been interpreted as 'divine crow'.

depicted with a crown of stalks of grain and a snake curling around her hand

worshipped in France (especially Burgundy)

Epona

horse goddess

protector of horses

Her name is translated as 'Great Mare'.

also interpreted as fertility goddess due to her depiction with a patera, cornucopia, ears of grain and foals

depicted sitting on a horse, some say she is the horse

possibly a guide for souls on their journey to the afterlife

worshipped in the eastern Alpes region, Germany, Italy, Iberian peninsula, Britain, Luxembourg, France

Maponos

god of youth and the hunt, possible also fertility and light

depicted as harper standing opposite a Celtic Diana-huntress figure

son of Dea Matrona

equated with Apollo and Mabon

worshipped in France, Britain

Nantosuelta

goddess of nature (earth, fire, water), fertility, home and hearth, abundance, the Otherworld and the dead

Her name is interpreted either as 'she of the winding river' or as 'she of the sun-drenched valley'.

depicted with a bird's house/ a small house (or temple) on a staff, bees and bee hives, apples, a raven, sometimes together with Sucellus

comapared to The Morrígan

worshipped in the Rhine and Moselle regions

Tarvus Tigaranus

bull god

Vosegus

god of hunting and forestation

depicted with a bow and shield, sometimes accompanied by a dog; occasionally associated with nuts, acorns, pine cones

his name is a combination of 'sub'/ 'under' and 'force'/ 'victory'

worshipped around Mont Donon (the highest peak of the northern Vosges in eastern France)

see also: Brigindo, Esus, Sucellus

Aveta

mother goddess, goddess of birth and midwifery

depicted with infants, small dogs and a fruit basket

associated with a freshwater spring at Trier (Germany)

worshipped in Germany, France, Switzerland

Dea Matrona (Matres)

mother goddess

triple goddess depicted as three women holding baskets of fruit and flowers, a cornucopia, or nursing infants

protector of children, animals, hearth and home

compared to the Welsh goddess Modron (mother of the god Mabon), equated with Terra Mater

worshipped throughout continental Europe (especially Rhine region)

Rosmerta

goddess of wealth, business and success as well as fertility

Her name means 'the Great Provider'

depicted with a cornucopia, purse, patera, basket of fruit

equated to Mercury

Sucellus

god of good fortune, the woodland and agriculture (fertility), and possibly the underworld

known as 'the good striker' referring to his hammer; When someone is dying, he can put them out of their misery. When he uses his hammer to hit the ground, it creates prosperity.

depicted with his hammer, but also with a large pot filled with food (likely potatoes) and sometimes alcohol, sometimes depicted alongside Nantosuelta

associated with Silvanus and the Irish god Dagda

Xulsigiae

triple goddesses of fertility with connections to solar and mother aspects

possibly connected to water/springs or the home

worshipped in Germany (Trier)

see also: Aericura, Cernunnos, Damona, Epona, Maponos, Nantosuelta, Nehalennia, Sirona

Aericura

goddess of the underworld, fertility, earth

Her name may mean 'she who cares about the copper' or 'protector in battle'

depicted with a basket of apples, a cornucopia, occasionally depicted with Ogmios or accompanied by a wolf or dog

equated to Prosperina and Hecate

worshipped in Germany, Slovenia, Italy, Britain, France

Alisanos

mountain god of earth and underworld

His name means 'rock'/ 'boulder' or 'whitebeam'/ 'alder'

worshipped in France (Burgundy, Aix-en-Provence)

Ogmios

god of communication, eloquence, persuasion, runes

His name is translated as 'sharp', 'stone', 'vault' or 'path'/ 'guide' referring to him leading souls to the afterlife

depicted as wearing a lion skin and wearing a bow or club; He has long chains (of gold or amber) in his smiling mouth that pierce his tongue and are attached on the other end to the ears of a group of men who follow him happily which indicates that he is a binding god.

compared to Heracles and Oghma, the Irish god of eloquence and poetry

worshipped in France, Austria

see also: Nantosuelta, Sucellus

Genius cucullatus (genii cucullati)

protective hooded spirits

Their religious significance is not entirely clear. They may be fertility spirits as sometimes they carry shapes that may be eggs (symbolising life and rebirth). They may also be connected to some kind of warrior cult carrying swords or daggers.

depicted as cloaked figures, usually in triple deity form

worshipped in Germany, Britain

Rudiobus

Not much is known about this god. Only one single inscription was linked to him, found on a bronze figurine of a prancing horse. His name may refer to the colour red.

Notes

A lot of knowledge we have about Gaul deities stems from the Romans and their equation of them with Roman deities. The list below is a (by no means comprehensive) list of Gaulish deities some of which were worshipped only in one particular place or region while others were worshipped from the Iberian peninsula to the north of Britain. (Therefore, some of the deities can be found both in Gaulish and other Celtic culture. Also, many Roman gods - who are not listed her - were later on integrated into the Gaulish pantheon.)

As there was no single Gaulish nation but many different tribes, these deities were not worshipped by all Gauls, and some of them "overlap" - that is, you will find several sun/war/fertility deities.

I tried something new (for me) today: combining tarot and astrology to predict next week's general mood. I don't do tarot as often as I'd like (and astrology even less), so I can't guarantee any accuracy... (If I am spot on or totally amiss, I'd love to hear your feedback!)

This week feminine energies dominate. Take this as an opportunity to tune in with your emotion and to not also nurture your relationship(s) but also yourself. You may feel the need for a new equilibrium and to redefine boundaries in your relationship(s) - be it with your partner, a friend or family member. While changing patterns and drawing or changing boundaries (in a relationship) may be a difficult and conflict-prone task as it essentially means making heard your needs and desires and at the same time balancing them against the needs and desires of the second person in the relationship. But this struggle also provides the opportunity to explore and deepen your relationship(s).

Your opportunity here is to find a (new) balance in your relationship(s), an emotional equilibrium as well as stability and harmony. However, achieving this will require gentle yet determined guidance on your part.

The challenge you will face will meet you right in the beginning. Often showing up is the hardest bit. But once it is done, it's smooth sailing from there and all that is needed is some perseverance.

In the beginning of the week you may feel the need to retreat for some time, be that physically or emotionally. You may find it difficult to communicate your emotions. When you use this moment to take stock of your situation you may realise where exactly you feel the need to set boundaries or change patterns. It is now, though, that you will face this week's main challenge. When you find yourself blocked in your introspection, ask yourself: What is holding me back? What do I need to be able to define my boundaries and initiate change? Is there anything that I am afraid or worried about? Anything I am holding onto which I should let go?

Once you have gained some clarity and are aware of your possibilities, it is time to move forward and to decide how you want to go about the changes you wish to make. Be mindful of how you communicate your ideas and needs. Remember that the other person in your relationship also has boundaries, needs and desires.

By the middle of the week, you may find (self-)doubts creeping back into your mind. Once your ideas become concrete plans the prospect of them can be intimidating. The important thing now is to keep going.

As we come closer to the weekend, the first effects of your explorations will become noticeable. While you may still be tempted to overthink and doubt (yourself), the uncertainties and doubts of the beginning of the week are gradually replaced by stability and harmony. Now is a great time to nurture your relationship(s).

Profit from feeling emotionally balanced and being able to effectively and freely communicate your needs and feelings. While your path already leads you in the right direction, bear in mind that you have not reached your goal yet. Particularly, in relationships constant effort is required to maintain harmony and stability. Luckily, you are able to act and take the lead to keep the spark alive.

In the end of the week, keep in mind this week is all about boundaries and balance. Balance your mind and your heart, intention and intuition, taking the lead to guide change and surrendering to it. Stay open to new perspectives and experiences.

When you look back at the beginning of the week, what has changed? How do you feel about those changes? You may want to intellectualise your reflections on the past week but remember that your emotions are equally important and valid as your thoughts. Now would also be a good time to have a conversation with the other person in the relationship to exchange ideas and perspectives. How do they feel about the recent changes? Do they wish anything was different? How can you work together towards your ideals?

Hag stones are stones, often flint but occasionally also sandstone and limestone, that have one or more naturally occurring hole(s) in them. They form when stones are moved by water causing them to crash together. Consequently, hag stones can be found close to bodies of moving water: rivers, streams and oceans. The impact of the stones against each other and the water erode the stones until a hole forms. The hole might also be created by a piddock, a bivalve mollusk, boring itself into the stone. It is debated, though, whether stones with animal-made holes count as hag stones.

A hag stones may also be called witch stone, adder stone (southern Scotland), gloine nan Druidh (Scottish Gaelic, literally translating to 'glass of the Druids'), milpreve (Cornwall), glain neidr (Wales, literally translating to 'snake bead'), Hühnergott (Germany, literally translating to 'chicken god') or aggry (Egypt).

How hag stones are created according to myth

Hag stones appear in the myths and legends of several cultures attributing various powers to them and often relating their origin to snakes.

In Germanic mythology, hag stones are created when serpents gather. Their venom or saliva hardens forming the stone, and the holes are made by the snakes' tongues perforating the stone.

Other sources claim that the stone comes from a snake's head.

Similarly, in Welsh mythology a hag stone is the result of a gathering of snakes. This gathering usually occurs in spring (on May eve). As the gathered snakes curl together into a tight ball with a hole a hag stone is created.

In Russia, however, hag stones are thought to be the dwelling of kurinyi bog (the Chicken God). When placed into the farm yard, kurinyi bog will protect the chickens from the kikimora, a house spirit and wife of the domovoy. Like kurinyi bog, the kikimora is a protector of chickens, yet she may take away the feathers from the hens she does not like.

Hag stones' power

In the Arthurian legend, several stones are mentioned that may be hag stones: In one story, Peredur (Percival) kills the Afanc, a Welsh lake monster, with the help of a magic stone. In another story, Owain (Ywain) is made invisible by stone allowing him to escape the fortress he is captured in. In Irish mythology, the druid Mug Ruith is in possession of a stone that transforms into venomous eels when it is thrown into water.

It is said that if you look through a hag stone's hole with one eye, closing the other, you will be able to look into other realms and see beings that are otherwise invisible to human eyes, such as the Fae. A belief in Italian folk magic is that you can even use a hag stone to bind the Fae to your service for a certain length of time.

Generally, hag stones are believed to open the third eye and help to connect to other realms and their inhabitants. Some say that the location where you find a hag stone determines which spirits it well help you to see/ communicate with. For instance, if you find a hag stone on the beach, it will help you to communicate with sea spirits. Yet, if you find the stone in the forest, you can use it to communicate with tree spirits.

Hag stones are often used for their protective powers. It is said that only good things can pass through a hag stone's hole which may be linked to hag stones being created by moving water and the belief that magic does not work on moving water.

A hag stone can be worn around the neck to protect the wearer from illness, curses and nightmares. It is said that the wearer will also be able to tell if anyone is lying to them. Similarly, hag stones can be hung over the front door or in front of a window to protect the home and ward off negativity.

Placed on or over the bed, hag stones ward off bad dreams and are said to improve fertility. (According to legend, there is a hag stone so big that a human being can walk through it. If a couple has difficulties conceiving a baby, they might be helped by walking through the hole of the large hag stone while holding hands.)

To prevent bad weather or a storm, tie a hag stone to some string and whirl it through the air to break up the dark clouds. If you are out on open water, you can tie a hag stone to the boat to the same effect.

Many believe that it is not you who finds the stone, but the stone who finds you. It will only work for the finder and can therefore not be bought or gifted. But, while some say that you should only ever possess one hag stone at a time, others claim that stringing several hag stones together will amplify their power.