#issus

The Battle of Alexander at Issus (Alexanderschlacht) by Albrecht Altdorfer

The painting portrays the 333 BC Battle of Issus, in which Alexander the Great secured a decisive victory over Darius III of Persia and gained crucial leverage in his campaign against the Persian Empire. The painting is widely regarded as Altdorfer's masterpiece, and is one of the most famous examples of the type of Renaissance landscape painting known as the world landscape, which here reaches an unprecedented grandeur.

The muffled clash of arms is past, as if it ne'er had been, The light'ning scymitar has sheathed its terrors bright and keen; Once bright, once keen, dark spots of blood bedim its lustre now, And the sharpness of the tempered edge, is dull'd by many a blow. Dark windings of the valley's bed! deep gorges of the Hill! Bear further off that hurried tread, Which wakes your echoes, low, and dead; It fails and all is still.

Seems now as if no voice, no sound Had ever rung, or moaned around, Save perhaps, some lone bird's plaintive song, Dying those wild, vast woods among; Unanswered, for there lingers there No joyous denizen of air, And that one wand'rer flitting by, Vainly, for sweet response might sigh, Vainly might hope for some far strain, To greet his warbled call again; The breeze alone, shrill, dirge-like, sad, Borne down those huge hills cedar-clad; Deep hid in gloom, the rivers rush, Pouring unseen, through reed and bush, And (sign of utter solitude Strange sounds of alien rill, and wood; Woods, that are murmm'ring far away, Rills, that glide off in foam and spray, Through mist-like distance dim, and grey: No other sounds erewhile were heard Responsive to the lonely bird But now, there is another tone, Faint, as the river's faintest moan; Low, as the West-wind's softest sigh, Breathed sweet, from an unclouded sky; Sad, as the last note's calm decay, 'Ere the wild warbler flits away; Yet heard through all, those tones belong Neither to stream, nor wood, nor song: They speak of life, they bear a thrill Not native to the wordless grove; The whisper'd echoes of the hill, The gushing waters, of the rill, Have no such power to move And there is life, a human form Lies prostrate in the vale, Like a reft victim of the storm, Fall'n, bleeding, cold & pale A stately form, though blighted now, For grandeur dwells upon his brow, And light shines in his lifted eye, Which looks on Death unfearingly, And o'er him, rests that placid grace, Sign of high blood, and noble race, His forehead bears a diadem Burning with many an orient gem, Stained ruddy now in blood The starry robe, the flashing ring The pearls in bright, and braided string All speak of Persia's slaughtered King, Stretched dying by the flood

Let not the glass be shaken Life's sands, are ebbing low, Let no loud winds awaken The tide is past its flow

The swords that gleamed around him Are reddened with his gore, The traitor-hands that bound him Will never bind him more

All Iran has forsaken The God to whom she kneeled This word no more can waken Life on the battle-field

Not one, of all the glorious host That bowed to Mithra's beam Ere Persia's crown, was won, and lost, By Issus fatal stream. Not one, who by the Granicus Poured forth their lives in blood; Not one, who on Arbela's plain In serried phalanx stood, Not one remains to watch him now Not one, to wipe his death-damp brow; A monarch, left without a throne; Pomp, might, dominion, all are gone, A Son bereaved, a childless sire, A King slain in the traitor's ire; On the dark streamlet's wild bank lying, Behold Darius lone, and dying.

Where, are now, his farewell dreams Fading fast as daylight's beams? O! where rests the monarch's heart Now, when life, and glory part? Sees he, with that glazing eye Susa's gorgeous majesty? All the light of regal halls Where the gushing fountain falls? All that rich, and radiant ring, Once the Guard of Asia's king? Gardens bright, where flower, and tree, Waved in airs of Araby? Whither, wings his spirit now? Whither do his last thoughts flow? All his mighty Empire, lies Round him, as he droops & dies, Ancient Egypt's, storied pride With the dark Nile's pondrous tide; India, rich in pearl and gem, Hallowed by the Ganges' stream; Syria with her tideless sea Ever sleeping placidly Desert lands, where wand'ring dwell Ishmael's sons invincible, Fall'n Palmyra, ruined Tyre, Where the Grecian's flood of ire Burst so full, and fierce and strong, Rolled so dark, and deep along, That no voice was left, to tell How their sovereign city fell As the prophet-doom was spoken, Her robe is rent, her sceptre broken Israel's God is Conqu'ror now Crown, and plume have left her brow, She rests silent by the sea And so shall rest eternally.

O! not to these the monarch turns, Not to glories past away; Remembrance, in his spirit burns, But not of power's decay.

A voice, still whispers in his ear Of one his word betrayed, And shadow-like, there lingers near A form that will not fade. The warning words of one who died, That victim to a Tyrant's pride Th' Athenian voice of prophesy, " King my Avenger's step draws nigh " The twilight of thy day is closing, " And clouds are on its fall reposing. " I hear the distant tempest sighing, " In muttered murmurs, faint, and dying " Asia, with sound of arms is shaken, " But who will to the conflict waken? " On rolls the foe, in living thunder, " Insatiate for the dazzling plunder " The steeled bands of Macedon, " The hosts of Ammon's haughty son " Shall crush thy pomp, shall spurn thy gems, " Shall dye with blood, thine Empire's streams " From Iran's throne, its Sovereign hurl; " And Mithra's gorgeous standard furl: " For ever furl, the sacred fire " Shall never more to heaven aspire, " Its light shall fade; its flames shall die, " They own not immortality " Another Altar shall arise " Beneath the bright Earth's cloudless skies. " King of the Earth, my course is run, " Remember me, and Macedon. " Thus boldly Caridemus spoke Then sank beneath the tyrant's stroke: But his last voice, to heaven ascends, And heaven, to hear its accent bends. From the dark tomb Darius gave, There comes, no murmur of a slave, The hallowed blood of Liberty, sends from the Dust its thrilling cry Makes to the Gods its stern appeal, And summons Grecia's sons of steel.

They come! They come! A measured tread Heavy, and clanking, deep, and dread, Breaks up the hush, profoundly dead, Of that wild, rocky vale And gleaming lance, and flashing shield, Their blood-gilt light and glitter yield, And plumes are on the gale Onward they come! A noble host! Now in the deep'ning valley lost, Now through the wood-glade, glancing seen, All mailed, and burnished, bright, & sheen At length, around the king they pour, Of Grecia's host, the pride and power. Darius, lifts again his eye, He sees not now, the placid sky, For the green-wood, and lonely glen, He views a throng, of steel armed men; The hum, and clash swell stern, and loud, And o'er him many a form is bowed, And many an eye of eagle-light, Meets piercingly his failing sight. Tall warriors, on their lances leaning, Plume shadowed brows of darkest meaning, Surround the dying king Their shapes before his vision swim Ghost-like, and wand'ring, faint & dim, Their voice, sounds like a sacred hymn, Low, solemn, murmuring. One kneels beside, and props his head, And from the river's crystal bed, Sprinkles his ghastly brow The cool, clear water as it falls, A moment, sight and speech recalls; Darius knew his foe. He clasped his hands, and raised his eyes Bright with forgiveness to the skies, He blessed his conqu'ror in that hour, He prayed for added might, and pow'r, To follow Asia's alien Lord, And strengthen, his resistless sword: Statira's shade is near him now She lightens thus his kingly brow And, with her calm, and holy smiles Her Lord, and Captor reconciles But soon, that gentle shade is gone, And Vengeance lingers there alone; A sudden gloom falls round the King; Stern thoughts within his bosom spring, The Rebel-Satrap, and his band, Men, of unhallowed heart, and hand, Before their slaughtered monarch rise, His Curse falls on them ere he dies, " Soldiers of Greece and Macedon " For the dark deed, by Bessus done, I leave revenge to Ammon's son. He before whom all Persia fell The Glorious, the Invincible The lord of Cyrus solemn throne The crowned in haughty Babylon, I charge him, by his power, and pride, To think how Iran's monarch died, To turn the Traitor's blood stained sword, Back to the bosom of its lord, A bitter draught he gave his King, His lips shall drain the same dark spring: Warriors! I may not longer stay, For Mithra calls my soul away!

He said, his pale lip ceased to quiver His soul soared to its awful Giver, The host stood round, all hushed, and still, While dirge-like murmured, breeze, and rill.

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Death of Darius Codomanus

Charlotte Bronti

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Retour à mon projet de présenter la plupart de mes 53880 photos (nouveau compte approximatif !)

2013. Au Louvre-Lens, il y avait une expo “L’Europe de Rubens”...

- “Vénus au Bain”, poire à poudre faite de bois de cervidé - France, XVIème s.

- “La Vie de Cléopâtre”, plat - Italie, 1620

- Georg Petel - “Le Bon Larron” - 1525

- Rubens - “Prométhée supplicié - 1612 (on savait rire en ces temps-là !)

The one-eyed assassin, Issus. 

aka another case of me getting far to attached to a character that is not important to the plot whatsoever and has about 7 lines of dialogue because I hate myself I guess. 

Issus: I can explain!

Alexander the Great and the Macedonian army crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor in 334 BC.  The composition of his army at this point was primarily Greek but did include some non-Greeks as well.  It consisted of a mix of cavalry and infantry.  His cavalry included light cavalry mixing Greek and Thracian horsemen.  While his elite cavalry was the heavy cavalry known as the Companions of which Alexander always lead into battle personally, leading his royal contingent, it was made of the Macedonian landed nobility which was personally quite loyal to the king.  This was combined with Thessalian heavy cavalry from Central Greece as well.  His infantry included missle and melee infantry ranging from the phalanx or phalangists to his hoplites and hypaspists and various armed skirmishers both Greek and Thracians such as the peltasts.

The Macedonian army was faced by the Persians who called on forces from all across the empire.  Persians, Bactrians, Scythians, Sogdians, Syrians, Indians and even Greeks as mercenaries.  They too had infantry, cavalry, archers and even armed chariots.  Memnon of Rhodes, a Greek mercenary commander in Persian service advocated for a strategic withdrawal and scorch and earth tactics which would stretch Alexander’s supply lines and deny his forces food and supplies to forage or “live off the land”.  However, the Persian satraps of Anatolia saw this move as both undermining to morale and not worthwhile because the scorched earth would be their own fertile lands, hurting long term commerce.  Their contention was to fight the Macedonians head on before they ventured too far into the Persian Empire.

The first major battle, was the Battle of Granicus fought in May 334 BC in what is now western Turkey along the Granicus river, as was often the case Alexander would fight many of his classic battles along rivers.  For his part this was strategic, the Persian armed chariots could not be effective on muddy river banks where mobility was slowed.  The Persians knew the Macedonians would attempt to cross the river and hoped to slow their  advance their by bunching up the Macedonian forces.  The battle started with a feint attack on the Macedonian left, commanded by a trusted general, Parmenion who commanded the Thracian and Thessalian cavalry.  The Persians shifted many of their forces to meet this attack but in doing so weakened part of their line, Alexander personally lead his noble Companion cavalry into battle in a flying wedge formation.  In the melee, Alexander personally killed a number of Persian nobles but was nearly killed himself by one until a timely intervention by a Greek general named, Cleitus the Black severed the Persian’s arm clean off with sword still in their hand, saving Alexander’s life.  The Macedonian center now had time bought and moved its phalanxes into place across the river, supported by the bulk of the army now pushed back the Persians, the speed of their advance surprised the Persian forces who after some tough fighting retreated.  The retreat happened before they could commit their forces, namely the Greek mercenaries to battle.  This resulted in the Macedonians killing their fellow Greeks in a general massacre, viewing them as a traitors for having served the Persians.  Granicus was a resounding Macedonian victory, their first major one over the Persians.

The battle opened up Anatolia to the Greeks who began conquering the lands.  Some Persian satraps in the next several months surrendered their territory without a fight, hoping to spare their damage.  Alexander sometimes let Persians stay in their positions of power so long as they supplied his army and swore loyalty to him.  Gradually, Alexander worked his way along the coast to neutralize the Persian naval bases that could cut off supply lines back to Greece.  He also visited the city of Gordium which contained the fabled Gordian Knot which presented a riddle to many in the ancient world, the complicated and varied tied knot was a puzzle that required challengers to unravel it, the one who solved the puzzle was said to be destined to rule all of Asia.  Many had contemplated how to unravel the knot but failed.  Alexander’s solution was simple, cut the knot with his sword.

From Anatolia, Alexander hoped to advance into Syria and threaten the Levant.  It was at this point that the Persian Shah, Darius III personally lead an army to counter the Macedonian threat.  Darius’s army actually ventured behind the Macedonian army hoping to cutoff its supply lines and trap it deep in Persian territory with no hope of reinforcement.  Alexander did however rise to meet Darius.  They did do along the Southern Anatolian coast along a small river called Issus.  The Battle of Issus was fought in a narrow ground between the mountains and the sea, the ground was chosen by Darius to limit the mobility of the Macedonian cavalry which had been so effective at Granicus.  Darius’s army was as typical of the Persian forces was multiethnic and once again they relied on Greek mercenaries, arguably their best troops which Darius placed at the center with his royal bodyguard.  The Macedonian advance across the river was slowed by the river itself, the Persians fortifying their bank of the river and the Greek mercenaries hard fighting.  However, Macedonian hypaspists, tasked with guarding the phalanxes weak and vulnerable flank and rear managed to break through a line in the Persian-Greek forces.  This allowed Alexander to see an opportunity to strike unexpectedly at the heart of the Persians.  Taking his Companion cavalry, Alexander drove his force on a right flank maneuver and then wheeled toward the Persian center, straight at Darius.  The speed and fury of the Macedonian charge at the Persian King of Kings completely unnerved Darius and he fled in his chariot.  This collapsed the morale of the Persian center which also fled.  On the left flank of the Macedonians, Persian cavalry held back Parmenion’s left flank cavalry.  Ever the observer and adapter to the situations on the battlefield, Alexander would wheel his forces  to hit the Persians now exposed rear.  This surprise attack combined with the holes being punched in their mercenary forces and the flight of their king lead to a rout of Persian forces.  The Macedonians pursued and killed off many retreating Persians, gaining yet another decisive victory.  In the wake of this, Alexander captured members of Darius’s family including his wife, mother and two daughters.  Alexander held them as prisoners though they were by all accounts well treated during their captivity.  Darius himself retreated to the Persian capital in Babylon.  

Over the next year or two Alexander consolidated his gains in Anatolia and advanced down the Syrian coast, taking the Levantine cities either by surrender and sparing them destruction or in the case of Tyre and Gaza having to besiege them and after many months finally captured both.  Alexander then advanced to Egypt where he was proclaimed Pharaoh.  He also visited a temple where the Egyptian priests declared him the son of their supreme god, Amon Ra.  He introduced the Greek presence into Egypt and the Levant, something that was to last for centuries with the Greeks serving as Pharaohs of Egypt until Roman rule, with a Greek-Egyptian named Cleopatra being their last famed ruler, a descendant of the Ptolemaic dynasty that was established by one of Alexander’ s general, Ptolemy in the wake of Alexander’s death.  Something new was happening due to Alexander and the Hellenic presence in Egypt.  Greek and Egyptian culture to a degree synthesized and Greek culture was being spread to Persia’s various provinces.  He would also found the first of many cities bearing his name, Alexandria, now one of Egypt’s major cities.  It would become a famed center of learning and culture throughout the ancient world, blending Greek, Egyptian, Persian and other traditions into one center.  This was to become a hallmark of Alexander’s rule and legacy, as he would spread Hellenic culture to other parts of the world and increasingly it would blend with the local culture becoming a hybrid of East meets West.  Reflected in art, religion, currency, governance, commerce, day to day life and military tradition.

Meanwhile, back in Greece the mighty Sparta which had remained silent during Alexander’s Asian and African adventures finally rose up to challenge the Macedonians, Alexander nor his father directly fought the legendary Spartans and the question was raised who was mightier Sparta or Macedon.  Antipater, one of Alexander’s generals who stayed behind in Greece would answer that burning question.  The Macedonian army crushed the Spartans at the Battle of Megalopolis virtually fighting to the last man, killing their king in battle too.  This subdued the Spartan rebellion and Greek discontent over taxes and Alexander’s rule in general.

Darius III offered several attempts at negotiations with Alexander as all of Persia’s western provinces and African ones, namely Egypt, were being conquered, some without a fight which was a humbling experience for the Persian Shah.  His last offer at peace was to offer half of the Persian Empire to Alexander, all the Western provinces, to become co-rulers of the empire, to taken several thousand pounds of silver and gold as payment and to arrange a marriage between Alexander and one of his daughters.  Alexander did seriously consider the offer and all but one of his generals argued against it.  Alexander, refused seeking to have all the empire and not just half.  The war would continue.

Alexander now marched his forces into Mesopotamia or modern Iraq with the goal of taking the Persian political capital, Babylon.  Darius is believed to have anticipated the Macedonians would take a more direct route through the deserts of central and southern Iraq which with extreme heat and lack of supplies would drain their army.  Darius however, once again realized he was dealing with no ordinary for.  Alexander ever the clever strategist took his army on an unexpected route through Northern Iraq instead, nearing mountains that would shade or cool his forces from the intense heat of the deserts to the south.  This caught the Persians off guard and Darius was forced to instead move his own army northward.   Some Persians figured the Tigris River which the Macedonians numbering shy of 50,000 men would have to ford was too deep and strong.  However, Alexander’s army did cross and was now moving toward Babylon on the east side of the river.  Darius decided to find ground of his own choosing to meet and defeat the Macedonians.  He found it on a relatively flat plain east of modern Mosul, Iraq at a place called Gaugamela. 

By choosing an open expansive battlefield, Darius hoped not to be boxed in the way he had at Issus, this would allow more room for his chariots and cavalry to maneuver.  His force was estimated by modern scholars of being upwards of 100,000.  It included Indian war elephants and various contingents and mercenaries from all over the Persian Empire as was usual.  Alexander however as was often the case, took an unexpected maneuver and initiative which offset the Persians.  He moved his Companion cavalry from their right flank far out on what appeared to be an outflanking maneuver which deceived the Persians into thinking this was an maneuver that needed to be countered and indeed they sent a large force of cavalry from their left to meet and clash with the Macedonians.  As the Persians drew their forces to mirror and counter Alexander’s deep flank, they weakened their own center as was Alexander’s plan.  The deep flank was joined by his phalanx and hypaspists infantry which Alexander had gradually disengaged them from the flanking maneuver to meet the Persians center which fixed them in place.  Meanwhile, the Persian chariots armed with javelin throwers advanced only for the Macedonian regiments to part forming alleys for the chariots to pass through without causing damage, before the chariot riders were killed themselves.  Parmenion and the Thracian-Thessalian cavalry on the left also fixed the Persian right flank in place.  It was now time for Alexander’s decisive move.   The deep flank and the fixing in place of the Persian forces effectively weakened the Persian center by creating a gap which like at Issus, Alexander could strike at Darius’s jugular once more by driving his flying wedge Companion heavy cavalry right at the Persian center and split it’s force into pieces.  Darius, once again caught off guard by the Macedonian deception and fury fled the battlefield, causing panic and routing in his forces.  Parmenion’s left flank however was in jeopardy and just like as Issus, Alexander had to lead a counter charge to save his left from being overwhelmed which was encircled by Persian cavalry on all sides.  Darius fled and evaded capture or death as Alexander had hoped, but preservation of his army was more key to the long term goals of Alexander.  He attacked the Persians in their rear with some breaking off to loot the Macedonian camp before they were dispatched themselves.  The rest of the Persian army fled as the Macedonians shifted their forces to left to relieve Parmenion.  It was another victory and ultimately the final blow needed to defeat Darius and the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

Alexander entered the Persian capital of Babylon which he claimed to enter as a liberator, he also went onto the cities of Susa and the ceremonial capital of Persepolis which was in the Persian heartlands of modern Iran, he burned Persepolis as payback for the Persians burning Athens 150 years earlier in the Persian invasion of Greece under Xerxes.  Now he was declared by his new Persian nobility Persian Shah himself and Lord of Asia, in addition to his titles as King of Macedon, Hegemon of the Hellenic League and Pharaoh of Egypt.  Effectively the Persian Empire ceased to be a real force at least in the western provinces.  Darius gave an impassioned speech to carry on the war in the eastern half of the empire which remained unconquered.  However, his satraps, especially one by the name of Bessus had enough of defeats and retreat by Darius, they took him prisoner and murdered their Shah.  Bessus was then self-proclaimed Shah but Alexander viewed Bessus as little more than an impostor, with himself as the real Shah and he considered the act of murdering Darius, the rightful ancestral King of Persia as cowardly and little more than petty and unjust, a crime punishable by death.  

Darius’s body would be recovered by Alexander as he set off in pursuit of Bessus.  He gave him a proper burial in the ancestral tombs of his dynasty.  Alexander had respect for Darius’s position and an appreciation of the Persian monarchy’s history even if they were enemies on the battlefield.  He now set about trying to consolidate a hold on his conquests through a mix of his Macedonian generals and Persians who proclaimed loyalty to him, becoming his new nobility and serving as provincial administrators.  He began to administer Persia, though largely as Persia had been run, seeing himself not as a new conqueror but as rightful inheritor to the prior Persian dynasty, this admiration for Persia along with the adoption of certain Persian customs and the maintenance of Persian governors and administrators by Alexander started to cause some resentment among his generals who unlike Alexander simply despised the Persians and felt Greek traditions superior.  The first cracks in Alexander’s otherwise impenetrable self-armor were starting to appear.  Yet, there was much work to do, such as the capture of Bessus and the conquest of the eastern remnants of the nominal Persian Empire.   Alexander’s gaze was fixed to the east to the ends of Persia and beyond, to the edge of the known world...