#romanempire

On August 1, 314, the First Council of Arles began in the Roman city of Arelate (modern-day Arles, France), bringing together bishops from across the Western Roman Empire. Called by Emperor Constantine the Great, the council was one of the earliest major gatherings of Christian leaders after Christianity gained imperial support.

The council was primarily convened to address the Donatist controversy, a major dispute in North Africa over whether clergy who had compromised during Roman persecutions could still perform valid religious duties. The bishops rejected the Donatist position and affirmed the authority of the wider Church.

Beyond the controversy, the Council of Arles addressed important matters of Church organization, including rules for clergy, the celebration of Easter, and the responsibilities of Christian communities. Its decisions helped shape the growing structure of Christianity as it transitioned from a persecuted faith into a recognized institution within the Roman Empire.

On August 1, 126 AD, Publius Helvius Pertinax was born in Alba Pompeia, Italy. Rising from humble beginnings as the son of a freedman, Pertinax built an impressive career through military skill, discipline, and loyalty, eventually becoming one of Rome’s highest-ranking officials.

A respected general and administrator, Pertinax served under several emperors, including Marcus Aurelius, and played important roles along Rome’s frontiers. His reputation for honesty and reform-minded leadership helped him gain support among both the army and the Senate.

In 193 AD, after the assassination of Commodus, Pertinax became emperor at the age of 66. His reign lasted only about three months, as his attempts to restore discipline and reduce corruption angered the Praetorian Guard. He was assassinated on March 28, 193 AD, beginning the chaotic “Year of the Five Emperors.”

On August 1, 69 AD, one of the most serious uprisings against Roman rule began as the Batavians, a Germanic tribe living along the Rhine frontier, rebelled against the Roman Empire. Led by the Batavian nobleman Gaius Julius Civilis, the revolt erupted during Rome’s chaotic Year of the Four Emperors following the death of Emperor Nero.

The Batavians had long served Rome as valuable auxiliary soldiers, but resentment grew over heavy recruitment, corruption among Roman officials, and harsh treatment by local commanders. Civilis united Batavian warriors and gained support from other Germanic tribes and Roman auxiliary units, turning a local rebellion into a major challenge to imperial authority.

On August 1, 10 BC, Tiberius Claudius Drusus was born in Lugdunum (modern-day Lyon, France). Born into the powerful Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was initially overlooked for political power due to his physical disabilities and scholarly personality. Few expected that he would one day become emperor of Rome.

After the assassination of his nephew Caligula in AD 41, Claudius was unexpectedly declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard. Despite doubts about his abilities, he proved to be an effective ruler, expanding the Roman Empire through the conquest of Britain in AD 43 and improving government administration.

Claudius was also known as a historian, writing works on Etruscan and Roman history that are now lost. His reign faced court intrigue, including the influence of powerful figures such as his wives Messalina and Agrippina the Younger. He died in AD 54, reportedly poisoned, and was succeeded by Agrippina’s son, Nero.

On July 31, 432, Sixtus III was chosen as the Bishop of Rome, becoming pope during a period of major religious and political change in the late Roman Empire. His election came after the death of Pope Celestine I and placed him at the center of debates over theology, church authority, and the future of Christianity.

Pope Sixtus III is remembered for his efforts to strengthen the Church and promote unity after the controversies surrounding the Council of Ephesus in 431. He supported the teachings affirming the Virgin Mary as Theotokos (“Mother of God”) and worked to maintain peace between rival Christian factions.

On July 31, 398, the revolt of Gildo, the powerful Roman governor of Africa, came to a dramatic end. Gildo had challenged the authority of the Western Roman Empire by attempting to break away from Emperor Honorius and align himself with the Eastern Roman court. His control of the wealthy African provinces, a vital source of grain for Rome, made his rebellion a serious threat.

The rebellion was defeated by Roman forces led by Gildo’s own brother, Mascezel, who remained loyal to the empire. After landing in Africa, Mascezel quickly defeated Gildo’s army at the Battle of Thelus, ending the uprising and restoring imperial control over the region.

Athelstan

Tom Holland’s "Athelstan: The Making of England" is a concise and brilliantly written biography of England’s first king. Newcomers to English history will find this book easily accessible, and informed readers will find an engaging and lively account of one of England’s most underrated rulers. 

“It was the most terrible conflict that anyone could remember. Entire kingdoms were mobilised for combat. Slaughter fit to stupefy poets was visited on the ranks of the rival combatants" (3). Tom Holland’s first lines of Athelstan: The Making of England (2016) take the reader ankle-deep into the blood and gore of the Battle of Brunanburh, where, in 937, England’s first king defeated an alliance of Scots, Britons, and Vikings.

Holland is amongst Britain’s most famous popular historians. He is best known for Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic (2003), Dominion: The Making of the Western Mind (2019), and being a co-host of the Rest is History podcast. Yet he is also a long-time admirer of England’s founding fathers: Alfred the Great, Edward the Elder, Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians, and Aethelstan. To Holland, their collective reigns (871-939) - which saw three generations of military expansion at the expense of the Vikings and the creation of the English kingdom - is “the most remarkable and momentous in British history" (94).

Following the opening at Brunanburh, readers are taken chronologically through Aethelstan’s life. Chapter One explores the early history of Wessex (Aethelstan’s homeland), the struggles against the Vikings under Alfred (his grandfather), and the circumstances surrounding Aethelstan’s birth in 894. Next, the book moves north to Mercia (the Midlands), where Aethelstan grew up, soldiering on the frontier against the Vikings. Then the book discusses Aethelstan’s early reign, his conquest of Viking York in 927, and his attempts to establish supremacy over northern Britain. Chapter Four explores broader elements of the king’s reign: his laws, love of saints, and the politics surrounding Brunanburh. Finally, an epilogue titled “Malmesbury,” where the king is buried, contemplates Aethelstan’s legacy and the fracturing of his empire upon his death in 939.

Holland is at his most skilful in explaining Aethelstan’s inspirations for his contemporary objectives. When presenting himself as a figure of English unity, readers see him paying homage to regional saints (Aldhelm in Wessex and Cuthbert and Oswald in Northumbria). Yet in moments when his ambitions stretched beyond England and became imperial, we find the king cosplaying as a Roman emperor. At his coronation, the royal helmet – the ancient symbol of Anglo-Saxon kingship – was substituted for a crown, like those worn by Emperors of Rome. When he hosted vassal kings from Scotland and Strathclyde, it is no surprise that he chose Cirencester, an ancient Roman town, as the venue for such a meeting. He would even style himself ‘basileus,’ a title used by contemporary Byzantine (or ‘Eastern Roman’) emperors.

Holland clearly admires his subject, styling him as the “greatest warrior of his age” and “as ready with legislation as he was with his sword" (71). We are presented with a ruler steeped in Christian mercy, who outlawed the death penalty for thieves under 15 and provided food for the hungry. Holland's Aethelstan is very much the perfect medieval king.

While it is correct to present Aethelstan as an exceptionally talented and able ruler, there is little in the book about his political and familial failings. Aethelstan's disastrous naval expedition to France in 939 to assist his nephew, Louis IV of France, is unmentioned. Also, his possible role in the death of his brother (and rival), Prince Edwin, is noted but without any consideration of what this says about the king as an exemplar Christian.

David Woodman’s recent The First King of England: Æthelstan and the Birth of a Kingdom (2025) certainly provides a longer, more detailed account of the king’s reign, with greater attention paid to his legal reforms, royal councils, church relations and foreign policy. Yet Holland’s book remains the most readable and exciting account of Aethelstan’s life. It is a great introduction to 10th-century England, and acknowledging its brevity at just 144 pages, it provides a helpful “Further Reading” guide for those interested in learning more about the period.

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