#fairuseweek

by Rebekah Modrak

As an artist challenging consumer culture through culture jamming methods, I’ve intervened into the world of an artisanal axe company, spending years learning its language, painting and branding dozens of helves, and mimicking their design to produce a company in its image (in a parasitic, parallel universe: my recreation is an artisanal plunger company). I’ve apprenticed in swagger and male bravado to recreate a lecture by the president of the Shinola company, and tried to help the company out by making their implicit messaging about being a white savior more explicit. I see these actions as a kind of “brand catharsis,” allowing brands to be honest versions of themselves.

It wasn’t until Best Made Co. — the mastermind behind the manly American Felling Axe —, expressed through its cease-and-desist a lack of appreciation for our therapeutic play that I started to think about fair use. Suddenly, the delight of traipsing through brand messaging threatened to turn weighty and stagnant. Fortunately, I encountered Professors Patricia Aufderheide and Peter Jaszi and their remarkable Fair Use best practices, Harvard’s Fair Use Week, and Kyle K. Courtney’s Copyright First Responders, celebrators and educators empowering the creation of new culture, and the value of mucking about in the mud.

The work that I recently co-created with Kenzie King — the Miller Beer-Cam — entered my consciousness through a declaration: “I like beer.” I watched Christine Blasey Ford attempt to communicate accuracy with every word, gracious and accommodating even as she told the committee about the violence enacted against her. Then I watched Brett Kavanaugh, belligerent and aggressive. The taunts of “I like beer” that accompanied his swearing-in ceremony were without any trace of empathy. They were barbaric victories of unchecked male power with beer as a symbol and weapon against women. Kenzie and I asked ourselves: If conscience and the judicial system are not enough, if police cars and bodies need to be outfitted with cameras to keep power in check, could we do the same with the beer can? If beer is to be weaponized, could it become a tool for the protection of women? We imagined a world in which MillerCoors reinterpreted their tagline “Miller Makes it Right” in the context of #MeToo.

The resulting Miller Beer-Cam is published as a press release. Our co-opted MillerCoors announces a recommitment to their tagline “Miller Makes It Right” by installing a camera in every can of beer to “hold men accountable.” Footage is stored and shared to provide legal support. We created the press release based on language from Gillette’s campaign “The Best A Man Can Get,” rewriting a statement that’s thin on substance and action to propose a campaign with real consequences and protections.

The nature of this work and the fair use questions are different than my prior works, which took the form of recreations proposing new versions of brands, and assuming new names and symbols. The fair use “gray areas” there concerned quantity. Did I really need to recreate Best Made (the axe company)’s website, their entire line of axes (as plungers), their Facebook page and hundreds of social media images showing men with plungers instead of axes? Couldn’t I have just made the point by recreating Best Made’s brand video? With the Miller Beer-Cam, scale (or amount of the portion used) isn’t a fair use factor; rather, this was the first time I’ve adopted a company’s actual name, tagline, and logo.

Fortunately, in this new terrain, I could turn to an experienced and expert guide to navigate the landscape. Professor Jaszi offered this compass: “I see no copyright issues of moment in your adapting Gillette’s press release, and my read is that Miller/Coors has no viable trademark claims: You’re not selling a product or suggesting an endorsement(!), and as parody (with First Amendment protection) it wouldn’t be considered a use ‘in commerce’ under the terms of the federal anti-dilution standard. And unlike regular people (at least so far) corporations don’t get to sue for hurt feelings.” Fair use gives permission to play in the corporate sandbox.

by Erica Charis

In 2011, when MOOCs first started to catch on in the United States, the course offerings were tipped heavily toward the “hard” sciences. Coursera's cofounder, Mr. Ng admitted to the Wall Street Journal in 2013 that, "[t]here was a real question of whether this would work for humanities and social science." (Geoffrey A. Fowler, “An Early Report Card on Massive Open Online Courses,” Wall Street Journal Online, October 8, 2013, available at https://www.wsj.com/articles/sb10001424052702303759604579093400834738972)

One of the key questions in many disciplines revolved around third-party owned materials. For decades, numerous courses leveraged fair use in the classroom to teach using copyrighted material, beyond what was available in the public domain. MOOC instructors, faced with a classroom that seemed to extend fair use's educational provisions to the breaking point, raised serious questions about whether their courses could even be taught effectively with all the copyrighted materials stripped from them.

If there were questions about humanities and social science courses, there were even more significant doubts about music courses. When Berklee College of Music released its first MOOC in 2013, there was little-to-no precedent for teaching practical music skills online, much less in an open, high-enrollment environment. Additionally Berklee had built its reputation specifically on popular music instruction. Yet, four years later, Berklee has 31 courses on the Coursera, edX, and Kadenze platforms in both English and Spanish, with five more English courses in production and six Portuguese courses in development.

With popular media being high on the list of materials targeted for take downs, cease and desist letters, or potential legal action, how has Berklee found its way around those thorny legal implications? In most cases, the faculty did what they do best: they got creative.

A few stellar examples are:

Gary Burton's improvisation students analyze examples he wrote. George W. Russell's musicianship courses do the same with twelve-bar blues tunes penned by the instructor.

Thaddeus Hogarth introduces his students’ guitar techniques with his own songs, where he is the copyright owner.

Pat Pattison makes listening recommendations to his lyrics students, explicitly referencing only rhythms and language tools.

Chrissy Tignor-Fischer's students to practice Pro Tools production techniques using a demo song from one of the students, who granted permission for its use.

Music Business and Music Therapy courses leverage nearly entirely open access content for their required readings.

There is in fact only one case where the unavoidable use of third-party content resulted in a paid fee for permissions. Sometimes, however, a class needs to assert fair use to make its pedagogical point. For example, Gary Burton's students are given access to a jazz standard lead sheet to give them a piece from the canonical repertoire to work with for their final assignment. A songwriting course currently in development may use excerpts from a Radiohead tune, though the examples will be played by the instructor and not directly from a recording.

On a broader scale, these strategies fit well within the context of solutions observed and actively promoted at other institutions. A working group of edX-affiliated librarians recently released a best practices document on intellectual property materials in MOOCs, consolidating a wide variety of approaches into a outline of “different methods for optimizing use of third party materials, while still maintaining low-to-moderate [legal] risk.”  When no public domain materials are sufficient, materials owned by the institution, or open access and open licensed materials are highly recommended.

Discovering or creating such materials can be labor intensive, but as the popularity of Berklee's MOOCs seems to indicate, the materials can be both effective in instruction and attractive to prospective students.

by Alvin Benjamin Carter III

In the Estate of Smith v. Graham, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York’s grant of summary judgment for Defendants Aubrey Drake Graham (a.k.a. Drake), Cash Money Records, and various record label imprints and publishing companies in its de novo review of the lower court’s decision which found the use of Plaintiff’s “Jimmy Smith Rap” in Defendant’s “Pound Cake” to be fair use. No. 19-28, 2020 WL 522013, at *2 (2d Cir. Feb. 3, 2020) (Summary Order). While summary orders are not precedential, this is an encouraging decision for Hiphop artists who utilize sampling in their music because the analysis of the first of the four fair use factors outlined in the Copyright Act of 1976 (the “Copyright Act”) highlights the Second Circuit’s ability to evaluate fair use in context of Hiphop’s long standing sampling tradition. Id.

Section 107 of the Copyright Act provides four factors that are analyzed individually and weighted together when determining if the use of copyrighted work is considered a fair use. TCA Television Corp. v. McCollum, 839 F.3d 168, 178-179 (2d Cir. 2016). The four factors are:

the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes;

the nature of the copyrighted work;

the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and

the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work. 17 U.S.C. § 107 (2020).

The Second Circuit’s fair use analysis in Estate of Smith v. Graham is fairly concise, but the treatment of the first factor indicates an understanding of how and why artists and producers often sample a particular work. In reviewing the first factor, the court performed what appears to be a close reading of the lyrics of each song, which ultimately convinced the court that Drake’s usage was transformative. 

In making this determination, the court noted that “The message of the ‘Jimmy Smith Rap’ is one about the supremacy of jazz to the derogation of other types of music, which—unlike jazz—will not last. On the other hand, ‘Pound Cake’ sends a counter message—that it is not jazz music that reigns supreme, but rather all ‘real music,’ regardless of genre.” 2020 WL 522013 (C.A.2 (N.Y.)), 1. Then, the court further explains that only 35 seconds of “Jimmy Smith Rap” is used in “Pound Cake” which is a seven minute song featuring Drake and Jay-Z rapping “about their greatness and authenticity of their work” in a manner that “criticizes the jazz-elitism that the ‘Jimmy Smith Rap’ espouses.” In this instance the lyrics to “Pound Cake” told the story the artists wanted to tell, and it also told the court why they were telling the story in a particular manner– through transformative sampling. The Second Circuit’s lyrical analysis and understanding is indicative of the ability, and a degree of willingness, to appreciate the transformative value in Hiphop related works for reasons that appear to be in line with the artist’s intent.

This is an important development because sampling is the sonic foundation of Hiphop music, and the intentionality behind sampling is what often contextualizes the transformative fair use.

The Estate of Smith is not alone in caselaw that is helpful for understanding sampling culture and the law. VMG Salsoul, L.L.C. v. Ciccone, from the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, decide a case where the plaintiff claimed that the producer of the song “Vogue,” copied a 0.23-second segment of horns from an earlier song, known as “Love Break.” The court acknowledged the applicability of the de minimis exception with respect to sound recordings and determined that the horn sample in Madonna’s song was de minimis. 

These cases prove hopeful for Hiphop culture and sample based music even though there still is not a clear path forward for artists and producers who do not clear their samples. 824 F.3d 871 (9th Cir. 2016). (The Sixth Circuit held to the the opposite in Bridgeport Music, Inc. v. Dimension Films, 410 F.3d 792 (6th Cir. 2005).

Still, the fact that courts are reading into the conceptual layers of works and parsing out the various textures of fair use in a way that lets artists be heard is far from de minimis.

by Kathleen DeLaurenti

Can you imagine writing a lyrical review or critical essay about Beyoncé’s music without quoting her words or lyrics? Probably not. You would also probably not think you had to pay her for using those quotes, either.

However, if you’re a pop music diva, or anyone else, who wants to quote Madonna or Beyoncé in your musical work then licensing that quote is currently considered “a must” (we’ll explore why this is the case below). While licensing samples may seem like common sense, musicians seeking licenses face many obstacles from figuring out how to get a sample cleared, simply knowing how much it might cost, and, lastly, if they can actually afford it.

Beyoncé Fan Art (Jon Phillips, CC BY 2.0)

When you start to think of quoting music in songs the same way we think of quoting words in writing, it then begs the question, “What makes music different?”

Today, if you want to sample a song, here’s what you need to do to succeed:

make a connection to one of three major sample clearinghouses, where you’ll be asked to pay an up-front fee, and

agree to a royalty percentage on sales or give a “writing credit” to the songwriters you want to sample.

While there is no set standard for fees, in their book Creative License, McLeod and DiCola published a chart of what sampling costs can be for artists. While costs up to $500 to use a smalls sample by a “low-profile artist,” costs can go up to $100,000 for a license of a “superstar” musician’s work, and potentially require as much as 100% assignment of the copyright. And don’t forget – this is music - so musicians must clear both the sound recording rights for recordings made after 1972 and the musical composition rights for any work protected by copyright.

Listing sampled artists as songwriters has led to curious practices. For example, the late Alan Lomax, a pioneering ethnomusicologist, received writing credits alongside Jay-Z, Nicki Minaj, and, most recently, Beyoncé (on “Freedom” from Lemonade) for use of his recordings of Reverend R.C. Crenshaw at the Greater Harvest M.B. Church congregation of Memphis Tennessee and Stewball sung by Benny Will Richardson and unidentified prisoners at the Parchman Farm Penitentiary in Mississippi.

In fact, Lemonade features so many songwriting and producing credits that it ignited a controversy over Beyoncé’s contributions to the work.

It’s puzzling to see such an acclaimed work criticized for its number of collaborations without exploring what those collaborations mean. Continuing our examination of Beyonce’s “Freedom,” three of the listed songwriters are deceased (though their estates will still receive royalties). An additional credit is for an approximately 26 second sample from the Latino rock band Kaleidoscope. From this one basic example, you can see the complicated system for ensuring accurate royalties are distributed to any fraction of a work that is sampled.

Sample [CC0 Public Domain]  

Figuring out royalty distribution is one part of this mess, but with song writing attributions inconsistently being given out to ameliorate difficulties in royalty distributions, as a librarian, I try not to think too hard about the mess this system will make for future music historians!

We take fair use for granted when we’re quoting people’s words in essays and papers, but in music, fair use doesn’t even seem to be on the table anymore. Fair use was defined in the Copyright Act of 1976, and outlined an explanatory preamble followed by the famous 4 factor balancing test. The Codes of Best Practices for Fair Use have endeavored to help many communities understand the statue and use fair use where it aligns with existing community norms, and raise awareness about what fair use is, and how it benefits creators. These codes now exist for poetry, documentary filmmaking, visual arts, libraries, archives, teaching, and online video. Each of these codes helps creators understand when and how they might use copyrighted works in their own creative process. The visual arts code even promotes explicit how-to’s! So, how did music get #fairuseleftbehind?

One big obstacle to developing norms around fair use for music is that, as a community, music is deeply divided. While Blondie was sampling Rapper’s Delight, experimental musicians like John Oswald, Christian Marclay, and Negativland saw the potential for harnessing technology to make and use sound recordings in their own creative works the same way a collage artist approaches a piece of visual art.

In 1985, experimental musician and father of Plunderphonics, John Oswald, posited that technology finally made it possible for composers to realize a long history of borrowing and reuse by “blurring the lines between sound producers and sound reproducers.” Early on, musicians creating rap and hip hop seemed to agree, but lawsuits over samples began changing both the legal landscape around sampling and music culture surrounding the decisions whether licenses should be required.

As sample-based hip-hop and rap music started climbing the charts in the 80s and 90s, a host of lawsuits about sampling soon followed. The barrage of lawsuits and resulting competing legal decisions, exemplified with the words “thou shall not steal” in the decision for Grand Upright Music v. Warner Brothers Records, speedily arrested the use of unlicensed samples. A more recent ruling in 2006 added a nail in the coffin for sampling fair use by ruling that even a two-second sample of a guitar chord could be considered copyright infringement. That ruling would likely still stand if Salsoul Orchestra hadn’t sued Madonna for a .23-second horn hit  in Vogue and lost in 2016. While these decisions might help bring some clarity around how little music you can use without an infringement, it’s a long way from having decisions that consider, analyze, and employ fair use.

An AKAI MPC2000 Digital Sampler [Public Domain]

These competing district court rulings don’t even touch on fair use, even though they discuss in detail how many seconds of a music work might be “too little” to constitute infringement. Using that language, it certainly sounds like they should be addressing fair use. Nonetheless, for a young musician trying to break out, this means there are no consistent fair use rulings on which to rely to make new, creative musical works.

Even though the fair use doctrine has been referred to as a “guarantee” that there is “breathing space within the confines of copyright,” in the music field, sampling artists are at the mercy of music publishers and record labels when requesting licenses for samples. For example, Mocean, an electronica artist, outlined his struggles with licensing in an interview in 1999, when he claimed:

“I tried for nine months to clear [a sample]….When I finally got a call back, they’re like, ‘We want six cents a record and $10,000 in advance.’ I said, ‘You know, I’m going to sell, like, 2,500 records. You’re crazy! My album budget was $40!’”

The license system that has developed mirrors the old economies of the music industry, rather than the creative goals of both copyright and fair use. Because the current system has developed in response to economic pressure from large music business companies, and because sampling will become an increasingly important aspect of new music, the sample licensing system could benefit from evaluation and possible change from the either the judiciary or a legislature.

Worst still, is when a music rightsholder simply refuses to allow use of a sample, even if money and licensing fees are offered. Outside the world of music, if a licensing deal is non-negotiable, there is still the right to harness fair use. However, in the music industry, there is generally no fair use option because of the court decisions and potential liability.

What if the sample was small enough to be de minimis? What if the sampling constitutes a fair use of the original, for reasons outside the 4 factors? The fair use statute has been interpreted by the Supreme Court to have legitimate reasons other than the 4 factors that are stated, and this would include allowing uses that are necessary to promote the creative arts. In Stewart v. Abend, the Supreme Court wrote, “The fair use doctrine thus permits courts to avoid rigid application of the copyright statute when, on occasion, it would stifle the very creativity which that law is designed to foster.” 

A few artists like GirlTalk (who cite Oswald as inspiration) and Danger Mouse rely heavily on transformative fair use arguments. While their work hasn’t escaped controversy, they have managed to avoid lawsuits. Some posit that the threat of losing a lawsuit and setting precedent to make it easier to assert fair uses in music keep labels from pursuing such perceived “threats” through to a legal decision.

Without any legal certainty, musicians may have to wait until new economic models to support their work beyond album sales and licensing fees become more prevalent. As more musicians begin to explore Creative Commons licenses for releasing their own work, and pursuing project-based funding through services like Kickstarter and Patreon, artists are developing new models for funding their work. These new models could provide revenue up-front, which could lead to less reliance on post-release royalty revenues. Musicians who are economically secure can then feel more secure about their colleague’s fair use of their own music.

Mark Hosler of Negativland [Stefan Müller CC BY-NC-ND 2.0]

While the bold uses of artists who make sampling a core component of their work - like GirlTalk, Danger Mouse, and Negativland - continue to keep conversations about fair use and music current, licensing approaches to music sampling remain the domain of those that can afford them, and that could be suppressing a host of young and experimental artists from creating new, and cutting edge music. Maybe it’s time for a change?

[For the most comprehensive overview of the state of sampling in music today, I highly recommend “Creative License” by Kembrew McLeod and Peter DiCola on Duke University Press]

By Patricia Aufderheide

Fair use—scary grey area, or friend of free expression? A new code of best practices in fair use for the visual arts makes clear that knowing your field’s standards makes all the difference.

In a world of no guarantees, knowing what’s conventional is a risk tip-sheet. That’s why having best practices codes among communities of creative practice is so helpful. The latest creative community to develop consensus around how to employ fair use is visual art professionals—fine artists, museum personnel, art scholars, art teachers, and editors of art publications.

When the College Art Association, the largest membership organization representing the visual arts community, released the Code in February 2015, visual arts professionals were locked into a permissions culture that delayed their work, raised costs, and most importantly, stifled imagination.

Did the Code make a difference?

Bottom line: Yes. Yes. Yes.

Survey: Thumbs up.

In a survey that about 2,500 CAA members took in the last three months, more than two-thirds had heard of the the Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for the Visual Arts. A third of those who knew about it had told someone else about it, usually several kinds of others—students, colleagues, superiors. That act of sharing was also an act of trust in the value of the Code.

Fair use is a valuable tool to visual arts professionals, because of the nature of their work. The majority of respondents employ third-party copyrighted material regularly, and 4/5 of those have employed fair use to do it.

The Code appears to have expanded the pool of people who employ fair use significantly, in only a few months. Eleven percent of survey respondents who had ever employed fair use had used it only after the Code was created.

Those respondents who knew about the Code and used it to employ fair use were also much more likely to have made their first fair use decision after the Code was created than others.  

Contracts: Please read.

Publishers are also suddenly smiling on fair use, in a field where authors traditionally pay hundreds, thousands or even tens of thousands of dollars out of their own pockets to cover costs of image permissions for their scholarly articles or books. The College Art Association itself overturned its copyright policies for authors. CAA used to demand that authors get permissions for all images and indemnify the press. Now CAA’s contract asks authors to read the Code and apply it to their uses. Indemnification is no longer required.

Yale University Press, inspired by the Code, has drawn upon it to write its own fair-use guidelines for scholarly publishing. Furthermore, the Press’ decision involved other parts of Yale University, including museums, which are now also considering expanding their access to fair use.  

The Menil Collection in Houston, as a result of using the Code, has expanded access to fair use for its use of images its press office work, as well as use of images more generally. Benefits, according to editor Joseph Newland, include speeding workflow and helping the press office respond in a timely way.

At the Detroit Institute of Arts (DIA), Publishing Director Susan Higman Larsen had previously bowed to the wishes of an artist’s estate. But now that she has read the Code and shared it with colleagues, the DIA has decided to publish a work using images from the same estate under fair use.

Artist: Yes I Can.

The Code’s utility also extends to individuals. Artist Rebekah Modrak, who teaches at the University of Michigan, spoofed the overexemplifying hipster-Brooklyn site Best Made Co. with an ironic (and hilarious) imaginary company Re Made Co. (Watch the side-by-side video of Best Made’s ad for an artisanal axe and Re Made’s version promoting a plunger.) After getting a cease-and-desist letter from Best Made, she turned for advice to CAA, because she had read the Code. CAA steered her to good legal advice at University of Michigan. Her university’s lawyers welcomed the opportunity to support her fair uses.

She then recounted her experience for a Routledge art scholarly publication; she used the Code to convince the Routledge editors that fair use would apply to reproduction of images of her own art.

Comfort in consensus.

The rapid deployment of the Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for the Visual Arts in the field was a surprise to those of us who facilitated its creation. During the process of creating it, we heard from many who told us of the highly personal relationships in the art world that would trump any legal right; about the fierce opposition they would face from estates and brokers; and about fears that artists would be outraged. But since the Code appeared, we have seen no outrage from artists, estates or brokers. We have seen institutions make principled decisions to lower marketplace friction and meet mission by employing fair use. Most of all, we have seen people who respect themselves and the good work they do decide to use the legal rights available to them, without repercussion. We are eager to see what happens next year.

by Bobby Glushko, Head, Scholarly Communications and Copyright, University of Toronto Libraries

Friday February 22, 2016 was a great day for fair dealing in Canada. 

Last Friday, the Copyright Board of Canada, an administrative body that sets royalty rates for collective licenses, issued a decision on the rate for copying undertaken in K-12 educational settings.  Access Copyright, a collective licensing organization that represents Canadian writers and publishers, had originally proposed a tariff of $15 per student for the initial phase of the tariff.  The Board, after hearing all of the evidence, certified a tariff of $2.46 for the initial phase, dropping to $2.41 after three years.  This was not only a substantial reduction from Access’ request; it was also half of the previous tariff certified by the Board. 

This ruling, came as a welcome confirmation that the Canadian copyright balance has become increasingly user positive.  In recent months Access Copyright has suffered significant defeats as the Board and the courts have become increasingly comfortable with fair dealing and the vital role it plays in Canadian society.  The role of the collectives in facilitating the use of copyrighted works has fallen in importance as a more robust understanding of fair dealing has come to be understood.

Fair dealing has not always been so strong in Canada.  For many years fair dealing had been seen as an affirmative defense to copyright infringement, as a “loophole” that could enable someone to get away with bad behavior.  However, in the 2004 landmark Supreme Court decision CCH Canadian Ltd. v. Law Society of Upper Canada, the Court demolished that theory, stating that

The fair dealing exception, like other exceptions in the Copyright Act is a user’s right.  In order to maintain the proper balance between the rights of a copyright owner and users’ interests, it must not be interpreted restrictively.  As Professor Vaver, supra, has explained, at p. 171:  “User rights are not just loopholes.  Both owner rights and user rights should therefore be given the fair and balanced reading that befits remedial legislation.”

This ruling, the basis of a newly awakened fair dealing, was resoundingly strengthened by the Court in 2012.  2012 was a big year for Canadian Copyright, as noted academic Michael Geist wrote, the Court “shook the foundations of Canadian copyright law” by issuing five decisions on copyright on one day; these decisions have been called the “Copyright Pentalogy” and showed the Court’s commitment to robust fair dealing.  On the legislative side, 2012 also saw the passage of Bill C-11, the Copyright Modernization Act.  Of particular importance in the Act was the inclusion of “education” as a class of activity that can be seen as fair dealing.  This change, alongside the Pentalogy, led many Canadian colleges and universities to adopt fair dealing guidelines that treated fair dealing like a user’s right.

However, these guidelines were subject to some controversy; fearing an erosion of their influence, Access Copyright sued York University for copyright infringement, stating that their guidelines were “authorizing and encouraging copying that is not supported by the law.”  In Quebec, a similar suit was brought by Copibec, the Quebec author’s collective, against Université Laval as well.  However, with the Board’s latest tariff decision relying so heavily on fair dealing, it seems that a strong culture of fair dealing is here to stay.  As Michael Geist recently stated “the Board Minced no words in explaining the reduction:

‘The main reason for that decrease is the fact that as a result of the decision of the Supreme Court in Alberta v. Access Copyright…This resulted in the Board’s finding that a significant proportion of copying by elementary and secondary schools was fair under the fair-dealing provisions of the Copyright Act. These copies therefore do not generate remuneration.’”

What is art? While humans have struggled to define art as a species for more than a millennia, we can all agree on one thing: art cannot exist in a cultural vacuum.

Artists rely on the ability to use the cultural expressions of others to communicate, advocate, and critique. Technological advances have provided artists with new ways to communicate their ideas, but simultaneous expansions of intellectual property have left some artists self-censoring and limiting their work in fear of violating copyright laws. 

I started this site to highlight how fair use has become a critical tool for artists in all media in the 20th century. This site is a place to celebrate the innovative work of artists who employ fair use to create new meaning, commentary, and critique when using the work of others in their art. If you have a fair use story about music, theatre, visual art, poetry or any other kind of art you can imagine, please share your story!