#aztecsacrifice

Xolotl: The Dog God of the Aztecs

Xolotl was the dog god of the Mexica people, commonly known as the Aztecs. He is represented in codices, statuary, and other extant examples of Aztec art as a dog or a god with the head of a dog. While this figure might seem obscure, his name and role echo into the present day through a critically endangered amphibian, a scruffy but loyal companion on an adventure to the afterlife, and, perhaps unsurprisingly, a breed of hairless dog.

Etymology & Associations

The name Xolotl comes from the Nahuatl language and is pronounced "SHOH-lot", with the emphasis on the penultimate syllable as is usual with words in Nahuatl. Xolochaui, another word in the Nahuatl language, means "to wrinkle or double over," and Xolotl himself is often depicted in art with deep grooves in the skin of his face.

His name was synonymous with the Nahuatl term for twin, xolotl, and appeared in the word for the double maguey, mexolotl, a plant that had a number of uses in Aztec culture, including bloodletting rituals, the creation of fibrous rope, and the brewing of pulque.

While twins were generally seen as a bad omen and viewed with trepidation in the Aztec civilization, Xolotl was the patron god of twins and individuals with physical abnormalities, which were a subject of fascination in Mesoamerican cultures. "In Olmec art representations of dwarves and hunchbacks abound. Rather than being objects of derision, these individuals are often portrayed with great supernatural powers" (Miller & Taube, 75). According to one source, individuals with physical abnormalities were referred to as xolome. Indeed, xolotl is also the Nahuatl name for courtly pages. These pages were often individuals with physical abnormalities, some of whom, like those in the court of Motecuhzoma II (commonly known as Montezuma), entertained the tlatoani and sometimes advised him on matters pertaining to Aztec religion and government. Likely referencing Xolotl, two-headed dogs and figures with hunched backs and dwarfism appear frequently in the Protoclassical ceramic art of West Mexico.

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Hummingbirds in Aztec Culture: Warriors, Survivors, & the Namesakes of Gods & Kings

Hummingbirds, called huitzillin ("wee-TZEEL-een") in the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs, are one of the most recognizable and striking species in the avian world. While these pollinators are known in the Western imagination for their vibrant features, extreme metabolism, and diminutive size, the ancient peoples of Mesoamerica, particularly the Aztecs, identified these extraordinary birds with war, blood, and sacrifice.

Habitat, Physiology, & Behavior

The most notable physiological aspect of hummingbirds is their tiny, lightweight, and extremely maneuverable bodies. They are the smallest species of bird and, unsurprisingly, build the smallest nests. According to the Smithsonian National Zoo, the bee hummingbird weighs only 1.95 grams, and the ruby-throated hummingbird lays an egg only about the size of a pea in a nest made from plant matter and spider webs that is approximately the size of a walnut shell.

The most unique quality of these creatures, however, is their maneuverability. Hummingbird wing strokes are powerful when flapping both up and down, and they are the only vertebrates capable of hovering for long periods of time. Their wings, beating about 70 times per second in direct flight and 200 times per second during a dive, allow hummingbirds to fly upside-down as well as backwards. Quite literally zooming through the air, they can reach a maximum flight speed of 45 mph (72 km/h), making loud insect-like noises when they fly nearby. To power these amazing aerial feats, their hearts beat up to 1,200 times per minute while in flight, compared to about 225 beats per minute while at rest. By contrast, average adult humans have a heart rate of 60 to 100 beats per minute. Furthermore, hummingbirds are relentless in pursuing food resources, feeding on the nectar in flowers, bugs caught mid-flight, and, when they can get it, sap made available by woodpeckers. There are approximately 340 species of hummingbird, and all of them are native to the Americas.

Hummingbirds also make use of a unique survival adaptation known as torpor through which they adjust their metabolic functions, including heart rate and body temperature, to the minimum needed for survival. When in this state, a hummingbird might seem to be in a very deep sleep, somewhat like hibernation except that these birds can go into torpor any night of the year if conditions, for example food shortage or low temperature, make it necessary. Book 11 folio 24r of The Florentine Codex describes this as a process by which the hummingbird "inserts its beak into a tree; also grows feathers once again. And when it thunders for rain, at that time it awakens, moves, comes to life" (translated by Anderson & Dibble). Indeed, some hummingbirds hang upside down and might seem to shrivel as torpor reduces their bodily functions.

Despite their small size, hummingbirds have a reputation for fearlessness and aggression and are known to attack creatures many times their size. The Smithsonian National Zoo describes them as "pugnacious and feisty," and mid-air quarrels and high-speed chases are commonplace when multiple hummingbirds are in close proximity. Even during migration, hummingbirds sometimes defend a particular flower patch to secure food resources, with larger species trying to dominate the nectar supply and smaller species doing their best to sneak in for a sip.

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Divine Smoker

Tezcatlipoca, meaning "Smoking Mirror" in Nahuatl, was a powerful god in Mesoamerican culture, especially revered by the Aztecs and Toltecs. He was an omnipotent creator deity, associated with warriors and the embodiment of change through conflict. His influence was so profound that he was often considered the supreme god in the Aztec pantheon.

Key Facts

Tezcatlipoca was the 10th of the 13 Lords of the Day in the Mesoamerican calendar.

His nagual or animal spirit was the jaguar, and he was associated with the horned owl.

He was worshipped during Tóxcatl, the 6th month of the Aztec solar year.

Those who revered him were called titlacauan, meaning "we are his slaves," indicating his pervasive influence.

Historical Context

Tezcatlipoca's significance was deeply rooted in the Postclassical Mesoamerican culture, playing a central role in the spiritual and social fabric of the Aztecs and Toltecs. His multifaceted nature made him a fascinating figure, embodying both good and evil.

Historical Significance

Tezcatlipoca's influence extended beyond religious reverence, as he symbolized the complexities of life and the inevitability of change. His role in Aztec mythology highlights the importance of religion in shaping the culture and society of ancient civilizations.

The Ball Game of Mesoamerica

The sport known simply as the Ball Game was played by all the major Mesoamerican civilizations and the impressive stone courts became a feature of many cities. More than just a game, it could have a religious significance and featured in episodes of mythology. Contests even supplied candidates for human sacrifice and became literally a game of life or death.

Origins

The game was invented sometime in the Preclassical Period (2500-100 BCE), probably by the Olmec, and became a common Mesoamerican-wide feature of the urban landscape by the Classical Period (300-900 CE). Eventually, the game was even exported to other cultures in North America and the Caribbean.

In Mesoamerican mythology the game is an important element in the story of the Maya gods Hun Hunahpú and Vucub Hunahpú. The pair annoyed the gods of the underworld with their noisy playing and the two brothers were tricked into descending into Xibalba (the underworld) where they were challenged to a ball game. Losing the game, Hun Hunahpús had his head cut off; a foretaste of what would become common practice for players unfortunate enough to lose a game.

In another legend, a famous ball game was held at the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan between the Aztec king Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (r. 1502-1520 CE) and the king of Texcoco. The latter had predicted that Motecuhzoma's kingdom would fall and the game was set-up to establish the truth of this bold prediction. Motecuhzoma lost the game and did, of course, lose his kingdom at the hands of the invaders from the Old World. The story also supports the idea that the ball game was sometimes used for the purposes of divination.

Xipe Totec

Xipe Totec (pron. Xi-pe To-tec) or 'Flayed One' in Nahuatl, was a major god in ancient Mesoamerican culture and particularly important for the Toltecs and Aztecs. He was considered the god of spring, the patron god of seeds and planting and the patron of metal workers (especially goldsmiths) and gemstone workers. He is equivalent to the Red Tezcatlipoca, patron of Cuauhtli (eagle), the unfavourable 15th Aztec day-name and he was represented by the date 1 Océlotl.

Early Origins

Xipe Totec perhaps originated with the Olmec culture and developed from their ancient God VI. Another possible origin is from the Yope civilization in the southern highlands of Guerrero. The first representations of the god in art, however, date to the Post-classical period (9th to 12th century CE) in the Mazapan culture at Texcoco. The god was a major Aztec deity and was also worshipped by the Tlaxcaltecans, Zapotecs, Mixtecs, Tarascan and Huastecs. The late Post-classical Maya also adopted Xipe Totec and representations of the god survive at Oxkintok, Chichen Itza and Mayapan.

In Mesoamerican mythology Xipe Totec was the son of the primordial androgynous god Ometeotl and, specifically in Aztec mythology, he was the brother of those other three major gods Tezcatlipoca, Huizilopochtli and Quetzalcoatl. Sometimes credited with being a creator god along with his brothers, Xipe Totec was also closely associated with death, which resulted in him being considered the source of diseases amongst mankind. However, the god also received many offerings from worshippers calling for him to cure illnesses, especially eye ailments.