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Investigate and compare the impact of two publication technologies, one pre-1900 and one post-2000, on a specific aspect of society (e.g. education, politics, creative industries, science, entertainment, social relationships).

The historical points at which the act of publishing has been revolutionised mark the beginnings of great turning points of canonical western history. From the Gutenberg printing press to digital media, advances in publishing revolutionise the world in regards to the amplification, aggregation and distribution of knowledge, which has lead to large magnitudes of social change in our common era, beginning with the acceleration of the spread of literacy, to global social change leading to the democratisation of religion and politics we accept as standard in this current epoch. Accepting the definition of printing as the process of making content publicly known, we acknowledge that one impact of revolutionising publishing is indubitably the revolution of the distribution and aggregation of knowledge, hence, this essay will look at transitions in publishing technologies and how they have effected the educational spheres of the societies in which they transpired.

Movable-type presses are generally accepted as catalysing widespread democratisation of knowledge, while evidence suggests the concept was first used in China and India, this type of press was specific to the east until it was invented by Johannes Gutenberg, it is this Gutenberg moveable type press that this essay refers to. Gutenberg’s printing press being integrated into common use in the 15th century caused an “explosion of knowledge” according to Elizabeth Einstein in The Printing Press as an Agent of Change although various techniques of publishing via press were available to the publishing world at this time, they were laborious and time consuming, and thus less favourable to script. The Gutenberg press increased out-put and decreased the involved time and labour previously necessary in script, and thus, the revolution of print began with the distribution of published material growing from an exclusive public of the literate and affluent elite who could afford scribed print publications, to the wider public to whom printed content was suddenly affordable and widely distributed.

The Gutenberg press irrevocably changed the value of the published word, as before a script had been a relatively impermanent object, made on valuable skins that were prone to damage, particularly water damage, it is easy to see that the editionable book, with it's comparatively durable pages allowed for the value of the book to become less in regards to commodification. The book also decreased in exclusivity, with the ability to edition a large number of books meaning hat they could be disseminated throughout Europe inexpensively. It is here that we see the rates of literacy increase widely, as reading and the consumption of knowledge becomes relevant to the wider public of Europe. It is this democratisation of knowledge and the accelerated publics this democratisation encompasses that are cited by figures such as Marshall McLuhan, who wrote in his Gutenberg galaxy of the medium as the message (McLuhan, 1962) - the realisation of the symbiotic relationship between the way a message is distributed and the ramification this has on the reception it receives. Likewise, when speaking of the integration of computer technologies into the classroom, Hokanson and and Hooper suggest “New technologies alter the structure of our interests: the things we think about. They alter the character of our symbols: the things we think with. And they alter the nature of community: the arena in which thoughts develop” (Hokanson & Hooper 2000). Thus, the ways in which print has revolutionised social institutions over history is an integral factor to the exponential revolutionising of human social behaviour over time.

Gutenberg did bot anticipate the effect his invention would have, his press had lasting impact of such great magnitude. The education of the masses was suddenly of great import, and this itself had many effects on the society of the epoch, many linguists point to the printing press and the drive behind the need for a standard language, a codified form of spelling in particular developing as a result. It is also argued that in this push for a unified language - newspapers that were geographically driven and had to all be in homogenous language - pushed for the idea of the nation-state where kingdoms or small townships were more valued. As education of the masses grew, their knowledge of the wider world grew and as such, their geographical world grew as news of far away courts and political decisions reached small town hamlets in no time at all comparatively to the speed of word of mouth and scribe. Here, we can see the origins of democratic politics as a growing necessity (Kraus, 2014), as politics became available for consumption to every literate being in Europe, as opposed to the literate elite. We also see education becoming more varied and widely distributed, allowing for the industrial revolution and the age of invention, an age in which the innovation of the masses was at a peak with the education of Great Britain being relatively homogenous and far-reaching across the nation-states. 

Further, given the influence of the church at the time, it comes and no real surprise to learn that the first Gutenberg printed book was the bible, and the most influential book published being Martin Luther’s The 95 Theses. The Roman Catholic Church insisted that only members of the clergy were qualified to interpret the bible, however, the printing press allowed for Martin Luther to form a protestant religious education movement that would serve as the origins of Protestantism. Luther published complaints against the church’s corruption and espoused the translation of the bible into German allowing for the holy book to widely read and thus the Catholic Church open to critique that catalysed a break away from the church, albeit where it was intended to catalyse internal change. This was an immensely successful endeavour of Luther’s part, he is quoted in Rubin’s The Printing Press, Reformation and Legitimisation as stating;

“[The printing press is] God’s highest and ultimate gift of grace by which He would have His Gospel carried forward.” (Ruben, 2014)

The reformation’s spread however is very much attributed to the moveable type press, “the message of the Reformation spread from city to city through broadsheets and pamphlets” (Ruben, 2014) passed on from village to village through the hands of fervent, literate priests. Thus, the reformation spread throughout Europe and martin Luther became an instrumental figure in the irrevocable change in the church that has had lasting ramifications, forcing the church to reform internally against corruption, in the face of the destruction of the church hierarchies in protestant, or Huguenot, cities. 

Thus, the major impacts of the integration of the Gutenberg printing press is are rooted in education, the rise in literacy, the decrease in value of the published word and the subsequent democratisation of published information to the general public and the massive colossal change this brought about, as attention and information was given a larger public, the public became more actively involved in politics, religion, the literary and academic world to the effect of an advancing and industrialised society.

The impacts of the digital age are as unexpected by it founders and hold similar gravity to the integration of the printing press in the 15th century. Although there is little academic analysis of the impacts of the digital age as it is relatively current and sill in its primary developing stages, there have been many studies and observations into the digital age and the so called ‘information age’ that it has birthed. With the rising commodification of attention on the Internet, complications towards different approaches to archives and the aggregation or lack thereof of available information on the Internet, the educational sphere is seeing massive change, not necessarily for the better, the end of which has yet to be experienced. Living in an epoch categorised by this information “world of flow” (Guillard, 2014), the rates at which we consume information in the current epoch are unprecedented, as are the ways in which we engage with media. The current monopoly of knowledge is not specific to one medium and to one strategy of consumption, with the laptop, smartphone, television, radio and tablet, and traditional forms of consumption through books and newspapers, there are innumerable combinations of consumption that are all fraught with complications arising from media consumption. The greatest challenge to the current epoch is the aggregation of information in a way that allows for constructive learning and satisfactory education as a result. As the sheer amount of information available to us rises, it is conjectured by many that the quality of engagement and attention given to information if decreasing. This is a problem that has been approached in many strategies, one significant strategy is trough social media aggregation sites, tumblr is a good example of this as it allows for the ability for the user to curate a range of blogs to engage with, aggregating a network of information sources onto one scrolling ‘dashboard.’ As Guillard identifies, this is of benefit to the user in that the aggregation of content allows for easily access content, but of course this has many implications, the curation of ones own sources often results in biased networks;

"…throughout my studies of social media, I've been astonished by the people who think that XYZ - whatever site - is for people like themselves": homosexuals thinking that Friendster was a gay dating site because they only encounter other homosexuals there, teenagers who believed MySpace was a Christian community because all the profiles they've seen there contained quotations from the Bible....”

(Guillard, 2014)

It is this flaw in aggregation that is a danger to education in the current epoch, if an English speaking student uses a search engine such as Google to find references for an assignment, they will likely only consume sources of the English language and western perspective, likewise, the collected data from websites such as google are applied in algorithms that will aggregate the results in an order in accordance to the previous searches of the user, an algorithm that provides an exponentially layered and growing bias with each search. 

It seems we have moved to a point in information flow that has changed again the value of information in our epoch, in the wake of the Gutenberg press, the monetary value and status of the book and published content was decreased to the effect of a widening public and heightened attention towards this content. In the digital media world today however, we face the challenge of the devaluation of information to the point where attention to information is scarce and sporadic, to the affect of content being driven towards our senses and appeals as a wider community in order to engage and gain readership, and where attention is monetised (Parker, 2009). This is an issue for education, and an issue for culture, as a singular network is often what is engaged with in the contemporary epoch, despite are many networks being available for engagement with.   

Aggregation with social media is still undoubtedly in demand however, and in regards to education and scientific advancement, it is particularly successful. This success lies in exponentially successful content curation, websites and mediums which do not display new content but instead curate the masses of content on a certain topic in regards to relevance, reliability and frequently use a tagging system that allows for easily specific data and information to be found quickly amongst large quantities on content.  For example, websites that aggregate archives of information via tags and RSS readers can be engaged with via a subscription type format via RSS, many prominent academic journal websites offer RSS feeds, including PubMed and Nature (Unimelb, 2014). As described in this article put out by the University of Melbourne “Subscribing to the RSS feeds of academic journals is thus an effective way to stay informed about developments in your research area, including new publications and notifications about calls-for-papers”(Unimelb, 2014). Content bookmarking websites allow for the curation of content again, but for an academic or scientist, this strategy is advantageous and allows for accessibility to rare content (Souza, 2014). On an everyday knowledge based analysis it is easy to see how content curation on sites such as Reddit and Digg.com allow for communities to speak and share content specific to certain topics, the success of Reddit for example is testament to the market for aggregation websites.

While this is a clear success, the application of computer technology in the classroom specifically is highly critiqued. The development of the educational psyche in schooling has been challenged by the integration of new technologies with many schools having to apply funding to make available tablets or laptops for students. Hokanson & Hooper suggest many negative derivative effects from this, citing easy access to aggregational and curated cites as taking a learning process away from students who before computer technology, would have had to curate relevant information from books rather after consuming a lot of irrelevant information and coming to critical decisions over what to include. This comes back to McLuhan’s argument that the medium is the message – here, the implementation of computer technologies has completely altered the ways in which a student engages with content and develops their own education.

In the light of frequent educational advancement in the digital age and the over saturation of content that is provided in this current epoch, it is valuable to look back at the ways in which the Gutenberg press revolutionised knowledge and education in the 15th century and beyond. The throws of a world of information flow ill have effects that have not yet been identified, and may not have completely developed, but the mirroring of the magnitude of change between the 15th century and the 21st century suggest that the effects will be far-reaching and irrevocable.  

Reference List

Eisenstein, Elizabeth (1979) ‘Defining the initial shift: some features of print culture’ in The Printing Press as an Agent of Change Vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 43-163

Brannon, Barbara A, (2007) ‘The Laser Printer as an Agent of Change’ in Baron, Sabrina et al., (eds.) Agent of Change: Print Culture Studies after Elizabeth L. Einsenstein Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press: 353-364

Eisenstein, Elizabeth (1979) ‘Defining the initial shift: some features of print culture’ in The Printing Press as an Agent of Change Vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 43-163

Guillard, H. (2014). What Is Implied by Living in a World of Flow. [online] Truth-out.org. Available at: http://truth-out.org/archive/component/k2/item/87704:what-is-implied-by-living-in-a-world-of-flow 

Hokanson, B. and Hooper, S. (2000). Computers as cognitive media: examining the potential of computers in education. Computers in Human Behavior, 16(5), pp.537-552.

Kraus, D. (2014). Pirates, the Printing Press and Global Democracy. Huffington Post. [online] Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/don-kraus/pirates-the-printing-pres_b_5575113.html.

McLuhan, M. (1962). The Gutenberg galaxy. Canada; University of Toronto Press 

Parker, A. (2009). User Contribution in Media Consumption. [online] Available at:http://thegongshow.tumblr.com/post/287466218/user-contribution-in-media-consumption

Ruben, J. (2014). The Printing Press, Reformation, and Legitimization. 1st ed. [ebook] Chapman University. Available at: http://web.stanford.edu/dept/islamic_studies/cgi-bin/web/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/rubin.pdf.

Shasel, (2014). The Influence of Printing on the English Language and its Development. [online] Ireland.iol.ie. Available at: http://ireland.iol.ie/~afifi/BICNews/Shasel/shasel89.htm 

Souza, J. (2014). Content Curation Vs Content Aggregation: The Basics. [online] Socialmediatoday.com. Available at: http://www.socialmediatoday.com/content/content-curation-vs-content-aggregation-basics.

Intro

The development of the first commercial photographic camera in 1839, and the establishment of YouTube, a revolutionary way to broadcast visual material in 2005, are two turning points in the history of publishing technologies and have altered the creative industries completely. Through this essay, the impact of these two technologies will be explored, a relation between the two will be recognized and it will be seen that nomatter the point in history, steps such as these in publishing can have a butterfly effects way into the future. Beginning with Louis Daguerre’s ‘daguerreotype’ camera, developed in Paris by Joseph Niépce, it can be seen how the ability to freeze a single frame of reality for unlimited viewing can have a range of social and artistic impacts (Gustavson 2009). Advancing to the modern age, and the ability to reproduce moving images again and again for an unlimited audience to view simultaneously, it can be seen how a relatively simple progression in technology can one day lead to a platform considered to be “revolutionary” (Gehl 2009).

The Giroux Daguerreotype Camera (1839)

Changing of the concept of ‘looking’.

“Ever since the birth of the camera it has been accused of upsetting the divide between public worlds and private selves, transforming the very act of looking and giving rise to a whole series of characterizations of this condition: the society of spectacle, the politics of representation, the gendered gaze and so forth, are among the more well known” (Carrabine 2014). With the ability to hold a single perspective from a single moment in time in your hands comes a different way of seeing the world. As Carrabine says, a number of factors come into play, not only in the eyes of the beholder of a photograph, but also in the way the photographer wished the photograph to be seen. With the commercialization of the Daguerreotype camera, one could now freeze a moment unlike anything possible through a painting or drawing or any other previous form of publication. It was in the freezing of this moment that one could now stop and examine the world exactly how it is seen to the human eye, only frozen forever, open to the scrutiny of the viewer. The concept of ‘looking’ at the world changed then, as it was now possible to see a frame at a time, as opposed to an infinite number of ‘frames’ simultaneously flashing before our eyes, gone as quickly as they came. In the artistic world, an artists impression of a subject was in many cases now dictated by the ‘looking’ ability of a camera, as opposed to their flawed and affected ‘looking’ as a human being. For example, it became practice to use a photograph to ‘trace’ a landscape scene instead of reproduce it from memory or from real-time vision.

Creation of an archive.

Only in retrospect could we see “the importance of photography as a record of historically-specific ways of seeing the world” (Rose 2000). As time has gone on and the use of archives as a base of knowledge has become so important, the value of a visual representation of events has become apparent making the development of the first camera a turning point. As Rose points out, it is the “ways of seeing the world” or perspectives given through the record of events which can be valuable, and many of the most famous images in history are results of the perspective from which they were created.

This famous photograph taken during the Vietnam War is one such ‘historically specific’ image, and is a strong example of the photographer using their own creative perspective to create a single image, freezing a single message in time as an archive. It could be argued that the creative industries are an amalgamation of past influences, regurgitated into new works, and it is this visual record which is turned to over and over again for inspiration. With the ability to build a history of art and a visual history of events comes the ability to drastically change the future. The act of capturing a single moment in time itself is the act of creating an archive, producing a spark of knowledge of that exact moment which can be referenced and drawn upon countless times as long as the image remains intact.

“The birth of realism”.

Up until the mid 19th century, artistic representation of the world had greatly relied on paintings, drawings and sculpture, forms of craft which all carried their own artistic conventions. Art movements reining at the time of development of the Daguerreotype Camera were Romanticism and the Hudson River movement. The ability of an artist to pick the very shapes, colours and state of the subject of their work was a stark contrast to the introduction of the photograph, a format which collected all these things in the time of a single exposure. The resulting image was not a picture of the world according to the whims of the artist, but a relatively sterile, absolute representation of what is in front of the camera. With this ability to represent the world so similarly to how it actually appeared came an entire new wave of artistic convention, leading academics to suggest that “1839 marks the birth of realism” (Posner 2013). Further evidence of the social impacts of photography on art comes in form of modern articles “arguing that the invention of photography in 1839 ushered in an era of unprecedented literary realism” (Posner 2013). It could be suggested then that the now relatively simple idea of displaying an unaltered image of the world on paper for all to see drastically altered the way humans think about the world and affected our artistic pursuits across a range of visual and textual artistic platforms.

YouTube (2005)

The impact of creative works on society.

The ability of a person to pick up any camera in our modern world and use their artistic vision to present an opinionated, artistic view of any topic by publishing the footage online for all to see is a power no human has had in history before now. As the average user logs onto their YouTube homepage, they are immediately confronted with the creative works of dozens, hundreds or even thousands of people. Every one of these clips has been tailored by those people to give a certain message, convey some sort of information or produce some sort of reaction.

“YouTube’s ability to share (extra)ordinary people’s insights into otherwise unseeable shocking events is testament to its capacity for changing the media landscape” (Drew 2013). It is this platform which has changed the way we think about cameras and the images they produce, and advanced the idea developed by Daguerre in 1839 to the point where the archived image is a power which influences not only the individual holding it in their hands but all with access to the Internet. A popular example today is online news vendor ‘VICE News’ which operates a channel on the YouTube website, creating content from around the world, specifically to have an impact on the politically aware or create audience.

The sites latest video at the publishing of the essay has over 60’000 views and has been online for 48 hours only.

Creation of another archive.

With the creation of YouTube, we can see the supercharged archive of the future to the original idea of the photographic archive from 1839. As the Daguerreotype photographers of the 19th century produced images to represent parts of their world, so too do we now publish our visual works online to form an archive of material from all around the world. With the existence of a publishing platform with such a huge expanse of information comes the practice of fishing for content with no end goal, but an urge to browse, be entertained and be inspired. “YouTube has a mythical “center,” and web users go to that centre to get content” (Couldry 2003). In an artistic pursuit, users will access this technology and search for content which has come before them, and this is the power of a device which will freeze content in time. “What is stored in the archive is not facts, but disaggregated classifications that can at will be reassembled to take the form of facts about the world” (Bowker 2005).

The establishment of an artistic platform.

“YouTube fosters community and acts as an agent for self-expression: the site makes possible new identities, sexualities, and modes of interaction” (Vernallis 2013). YouTube presents artists and non-artists alike with the opportunity to use relatively simple technology to produce something unique and post it online for the world to see. The ability of a 9 year old to take a video on their iPad and share it to a linked YouTube account has become so seamless now that artistic expression has become less about years of technical training and more about the ability to translate a message in as short a time as possible to a wide audience. As this publication technology changed, so too did our modern society, altering our expectations of online video content until most of what we expect is 15-minute ‘vine’ clips designed purely to entertain. Why would one buy a documentary on DVD or watch ‘Funniest Home Videos’ on television when we can access an unlimited amount of both these things in an instant online? The artistic world has adapted to the new form of publication too, one of the products being channels such “triple-j” who publish video footage from their Friday morning radio programs, in an effort to engage an online platform. One could argue that the creative world has been further commercialized with the introduction of this publishing technology, with companies such as ‘Vevo’ partnering with Google to optimize advertising across the YouTube platform.

Conclusion:

Beginning with the invention of the Daguerreotype camera in 1839, the human population (artistic and otherwise) has been fascinated with the reproduced image and has sought to shape it in many different ways. The product of this original invention can be seen everywhere in the daily life of the modern person, and it is platforms like YouTube which make this especially true. Throughout history it can be seen that the introduction of technologies such as the printing press and the Internet have changed how we publish and how we interact as humans, and the camera is no exception. Every day, artists, developers, thinkers and many other types of people are finding new ways to use the captured image to send messages, promote ideas and to interact with others, and this is something which will continue long into the future.

 Word Count: 1771

Reference List:

Bowker, G. C. (2005). Memory practices in the sciences. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 18.

Carrabine, E. (2014). Seeing things: violence, voyeurism and the camera. Theoretical Criminology. 18(2), 134-158

Couldry, N. (2003). Media rituals : a critical approach. London ; New York: Routledge.

Drew, C. (2013) Reading YouTube: the critical viewers guide, Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies 27:5, 757-759

Frizot, M. (1999). "Light machines: On the threshold of invention". In Michel Frizot. A New History of Photography. Koln, Germany: Konemann.

Gehl, R. (2009). YouTube as archive Who will curate this digital Wunderkammer?. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 12(1), 43-60.

Gustavson, T. (2009). Camera: a history of photography from daguerreotype to digital. New York, New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc.

Posner, A. (2013). The Camera and the Press: American Visual and Print Culture in the Age of the Daguerreotype, History of Photography, 37:4, 462-464

Rose, G. (2000). Practising photography: an archive, a study, some photographs and a researcher. Journal of Historical Geography 26(4), 555-571

Vernallis, C. (2013). YouTube Aesthetics. In Unruly Media: YouTube, Music Video, and the New Digital Cinema. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 6 Nov. 2014, from http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199766994.001.0001/acprof-9780199766994-chapter-7.

Here is the link to my essay (recorded via Soundcloud):

https://soundcloud.com/z3461972/z3461972-archives

And for further reference, here is the transcript to my audio response to the question.

Transcript:

Intrinsic to human civilisation is the inherent desire and need to preserve what is valuable to society. This is particularly important when it comes to intangible human activity, which is hard to preserve. We tend to materialise what we cannot preserve and archive them to retain their existence. As a product of this human condition to preserve, archives are thus, a collection of both individual and collective memories of human experience. They are the materialistic form of the ideas and images of the past (Ibrahim 2009, p. 65).

Archive fever encapsulates this innate human desire, by recognising that in order to preserve what we value for as long as we can, we need to constantly create new archives, and invent new technologies and methods of archiving, to outdo the previous ones and surpass their limitations. Therefore, this explains why archives are so fundamentally violent and destructive in nature, seeking to destroy the monopoly of knowledge and power of its’ precedent, and replacing it with its own set of laws and order.

It is evident that in contemporary society, there are ongoing debates about the threats that certain modern archives pose on traditional archives. An interesting example of this tension that exists between archives is evident in the power play between physical bookstores and online retailers such as Amazon. Both archives serve the same purpose of selling books, but what are the defining features, which led to Amazon’s rise, yet, the decline of physical bookstores? Amazon suggests books based on what you’ve read: your local store recommends what the employees like. Amazon has a wide variety of novels whilst local bookstores only have a relatively paltry selection. No matter what the reason, it is undeniable that Amazon (the new archive) is an increasing threat to the survivability of the bookstore industry. And the impacts of such tension between archives are not only limited to the industry itself, but it is also inclusive of those who work within that industry, and the reading culture itself is redefined. No longer can the bookstore industry afford to be complacent about its security, rather, it needs to eagerly search for a unique feature that can sustain its long-term survivability. Thus, it is conclusive that when new archives seek to destroy old archives, it also destroys the monopoly of knowledge and the public that has been build upon that archive.

There is an increasing engagement of the human archive with contemporary media archives and technologies. Smartphones are becoming pervasive in our everyday lives, as they encapsulate not only archival memory, but also the ability to archive and also access online archives via applications. As one of the first functions of a smartphone, most phone cameras had a small mirror at the back of the phone, purposefully placed there in order to make it easier for the user to take self-portrait photographs, or commonly known as – selfies. It established what is now known as the “selfie culture”, where individuals post their selfies on social networking sites such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter. With the introduction of the front and back camera, it further entrenched this “selfie” culture as particular angles became established as the decisive angle that could help one to achieve that “ultimate selfie”. However, the social implications of these functions have often been overlooked. With the establishment of the front and back camera, there has been an increasing emphasis on visuals within society, perpetuating notions of narcissism and the need to meet visual standards. Thus, these cultural practices seep through into society where it constitutes the way we dress, present ourselves, and the way we live.

There is an underlying philosophy evident in contemporary media archives, which differentiates it from precedent archives. That is, the presentation and organisation of news feeds are currently underpinned by the philosophy that “if it’s not recent, it’s not important” (Ogle 2010). Twitter and Facebook newsfeeds alike, are presented in a reverse-chronological format to highlight what’s happening now. The reason behind it lies in the idea that increasing importance is placed on the real time, rather than the past. Therefore, particularly for social media archives such as Twitter, it assists in creating real-time publics or as Bruns and Burgess (2011) describes it, “ad-hoc publics”. The social function of this means that public conversation and “language itself is liberated from the spatial-temporal constraints of its ephemeral materialisation in speech” (Coulmas 1989, p.7). This means that in real-time more people are able participate and contribute to public discussions. Bruns & Burgess (2011, p.7) argue that the foundation of Twitter’s recognition as an important tool for the discussion of current events lies in its flexibility of forming new hashtag communities as and when they are needed, without restriction. Moreover, the bottom-up nature of Twitter as a communicative space means that institutional participants are not able to effectively channel or dominate public conversation. Thus such platforms aim to distribute centralised authority to its users by assisting the dissemination of their opinions and personal expressions to a wider public.

Ultimately, archives are both destructive in imposing a new order, yet conservative in the sense that they seek to sustain the new laws it establishes.

References

Bruns, A. & Burgess, J.E. 2011, 'The Use of Twitter hashtags in the formation of ad hob publics', Queensland University of Technology, Australia.

Coulmas, Florian. (1989) The Writing Systems of the World. Oxford: Blackwell.

Derrida, Jacques (1995) ‘Archive Fever—A Freudian Impression’, Diacritics, vol. 25, no. 2, pp.9-63.

Enszer, Julie R. (2008) Julie R. Enszer (personal blog), 'Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression by Jacques Derrida', November 16, <http://julierenszer.blogspot.com/2008/11/archive-fever-freudian-impression-by.html>

Ibrahim, Y 2008, Blogs as the People’s Archive: The Phantom Public and Virtual Presence, Journal of New Communications Research 3/1, pp. 65-73.

Question 2: ‘But what’s happening today - the mass ability to communicate with each other, without having to go through a traditional intermediary - is truly transformative.”

How is the diminution of traditional, and often hierarchical, ‘authoritative’ intermediaries changing the role of publishing in social life?     

It is strongly evident today that the news industry has come a long way from traditional formats of publishing. Radical and dramatic shifts are emerging from technological developments which have changed the significance and practice of publishing information. The role of publishing is the process of making information available across the public (Wikipedia 2014), exploring and organising ideas from the world and to allow individuals to engage with this information as social beings. Historically, publishing referred to the distribution of printing physical formats such as books and newspapers (Wikipedia 2014) and were recognised as the major hierarchical, ‘authoritative’ intermediaries to deliver news. Individuals were passive receivers of content as media industries continued a one-way channel of publishing to the public.  To a degree, this limited them to completely participate or engage with the information to share within their social life. Now, individuals are capable to communicate with each other, share and obtain information from another, without having to go through a traditional intermediary specifically due to the rise of the Web 2.0 and social media (Rusbridger 2010). The digital revolution has changed the practices in which media industries operate and the hierarchy and authority of power to create, visible through the example of online publishing. New platforms such as Twitter have changed communication for participants to become more active and global, but it can also be argued that there is also a deficient standard of participation in our social lives and a growing number of struggling journalists experiencing a decline in their field of work. 

  The Traditional Forms of Publishing to Now

In order to understand the diminution of traditional intermediaries, we need to explore the context in which it arose within our social lives. As the invention of printing had created a wider scope for publishing ideas about the world, scholars and media industries were captivated by how they could now organise society.  The change of production and printing books had changed the notion of science, the way they displayed knowledge, politics or philosophy - ‘print revolutionised the world’ (Brannon 2002, p. 353). A successful and profitable example can be the Bible for instance, relatively known as an international bestseller. Available across the world in an extensive range of languages and editions to clearly be read and befit the reader. The traditional forms of publishing were recognised as authoritative positions in society; when searching for the reliability and accuracy of information, they were the hierarchical source where content was controlled and distributed.

In the past, in a time span of a year in the Gutenberg Revolution it would have been a month or two before a single book would be produced (Rusbridger 2010). And would be few centuries later that publication of print would be capable of replication. The development of printing has been historically significant and authoritative as it has provided the ability to read then write, to educate and therefore allowed us to socially communicate with others who distant (Old and Sold 1930). It allowed individuals to persevere with knowledge and scholars to organise archives of progressive events and connect society on various new levels. As Alan Rusbridger (2010) states, ‘an idea of communication that involved one person to many’. 

However now, the way of publishing has evolved. It can be seen that the practice on relying upon traditional forms such as printed newspaper, radio or television to inform the public is declining, although their role of publishing in forms of speaking to many is evolving. Over two decades, journalism companies have responded to using Web 2.0 and the social media and utilising electronic publishing to allow more social interactions with their content. The method of these industries distributing and publishing content has changed, transforming the printing press and adapting to these digital forces. As Rusbridger’s (2010) statement is true, “It was only a matter of time before it would seem overwhelming obvious -and economically irresistible - for people to converge, consolidate and integrate” towards the power of digital media.

Web 2.0 and Media Convergence

Exploring the past influences and their main focus of configuring and disseminating ideas, it can be historically understood for sharing research and literature broadly across various fields. This can be emphasised through Glaysher (2010) addressing Rusbriger’s (2010) quote, as he differentiates that the traditional forms of publishing was “transmission”, whilst the social network of Web 2.0 had enabled “communication”. The very emergence of online platforms and Web 2.0 have change the nature of publishing and engagement with content. Technological developments have not just allowed single communication, but also sharing amongst community or the wider world. Jenkins (2004) explains this convergence to have “expanded a range of various channels, enabled individuals to independently consume, archive, annotate, appropriate and recirculate media content in powerful new ways” (Jenkins 2004, p. 33). The impact is evident as it has provided the ability for people to socially communicate and inform each other online through different technological platforms instead of physical formats such as books or newspapers. There is instant participation through the digital emergence of online publishing platforms and certainly more prominence in wider availability of information of our daily lives. Despite 3400 newspapers websites accessible online mid 2001, news industries recognised that the traditional forms of publishing would weaken and the decrease the profit within their industry, however throughout today they still continue to uphold their traditional use of the newspaper purpose and design (Bokesoy 2008).

Changing Role of Publishing in Social Life

So after exploring the forms and historical context of the declining traditional intermediaries, to what extent is this changing the role of publishing in our social lives through online publishing?  

It has allowed accessing information more instantaneous. In today’s society, individuals experience the need to be informed socially and productively. One must be up-to-date with news content, and be interactive and capable to socially exchange ideas and share to the common public. Now this can be done without utilising a traditional intermediary. Publishing has changed its nature by forming new structures in an endlessly accessible field of the digital world. By individuals owning a mobiles phone, tablet, laptop they are all are capable of providing blogs, watching videos from the internet, camera and social networking applications which are all interactive rather than just presenting or ‘transmitting’ information. Major online applications such as Twitter or Facebook provide opportunities for people to share, respond or publish anything instantly by a quick search or using hashtags, and what is timely possible than the process of a printed book or newspaper. These online facilities have become more socially accepted and interpersonal to socially maximise involvement from the public. Twitter has been an effective example of locating real-time and diverse amounts of information, narrowing the concrete specifications of the data you want to share to 140 characters. Through this image, it illustrates the modern day format of a news company adopting to the shifting digital practice. Not only is the information easily organised through the hashtag #MelbourneCup, but this demonstrates how publishing has transformed into a effortless medium that is free of charge and a formidable aggregation tool (Rusbridger 2010) to shaping audience searches as convenient and relevantly accessible. Therefore its transformation has allowed ambient affiliation between a common topic to be shared and discussed lively. New terms such as followers, reblog, retweet are formatted in the digital age and publishing has adopted that within their online publications. Thus, by highlighting the role of publishing changing to produce content in real-time, almost everything is now public and widely shareable to be connected and informed within society. 

Online publishing is more global and less regulated. Influenced by the immediacy of content, online publishing has been transformative in media as it has provided opportunities to be interactive and flexible one a wide scope. In an open space and often unregulated, benefits of entering a public than private space is extending this potential to allow more voices to be heard (Light & Rogers 1999) from across the world. In the growing of the digital revolution, individuals find it important to extend their relationships to help, inform, share with others and develop a sense of individuality (Wikipedia 2014). There are hardly any limitations for individuals to express their creativity and distribute content across the web and online publishing forums accommodate this. Youtube, Twitter and Facebook are massive international platforms that are effective in sharing ideas and content to million of users online. It has allowed individuals the ability to locate information that they may not be able to find in their local bookstore, news-agency or country enabling a more frequent flow of gathering information which differs from collecting traditional formats of publishing. If an individual or journalist were to publish a tweet, post, image based on their beliefs or feelings, it would mostly be on a global scale. Therefore, different from traditional publishing the interactiveness of the Web has changed the relationship between user and publisher (Light & Rogers 1999) and boundaries between personal and public. For example, Youtube is a huge online publishing platform where users are capable to distribute their own video blog or “vlogs”, comment, share, subscribe and maximise reaching their audiences. As there are both amateur and professional makers with various topics, it can be sure that publishing has transformed virtually without obtaining a newspaper, which can limit recorded footage of a particular event. There is a new sense of authority and control within contemporary publishing as it can now be created by anyone. This then allows individuals who wish to get involved to respond to issues from around the world an ability to be socially connected to their interests and informed instantly. However on a global scale, it has also enabled room for detriment of information. Despite attempting to search for particular topics, it can be difficult to search for validity and reliability of content due to mass communication and consumption. News industries are threatened by this, and therefore face consistent competition from the internet to maximise their readers experience. As once authoritative publications were available locally at a news agency or bookshop and capable of influencing audiences through physical browsing, individuals living in the digital evolution can browse for free and filter searches to specific choices on an international scope. 

It has allowed more individual creativity and sharing. Since the emergence of the internet, its “Open Access” nature of searching through archives of information (Glaysher 2010) has been allowed infinite information and participation. Almost everyone can be labelled for publishing as they are active on the Internet. New publishing websites have now become efficient tools for individuals to produce content of their own such as Tumblr or Twitter and assisted in making their ideas flourish. It has lessened the problem of lack of space when writing, created opportunities to share on a wider audience market and especially allowed more creative formats such as videos, links, additional photos and comments that may not have been capable on a physical layout setting. Most accessible and recognisable publishing platforms are the digitisation of books as e-books, or Kindle and mobile devices such as the iPad or mobile phone which have been developed to be portable and  available relationship between user and technology. Therefore the quality and content of publishing has changed. New intermediaries have evolved where newspaper industries are now competing against the general public, as in modern society nearly anyone can publish  and imitate ideas and publish online. The quality of content also has become a challenge as individuals search through an inconstant and real-time circulation of information. Self-publishing online has been a new advantage to individuals, as it transforms the authoritative power of publishing systems. It has shifted the amount of power and control which was never seen in the days of print journalism (Miller 2013). Therefore throughout this digital trend, this may have become a positive impact for people who have become bloggers or vloggers who now use these digital tools and social media to spread, communicate ideas and express themselves and individuality to each other. However it must be considered that despite the overwhelming quantity of online publishing available, lack of authoritative and integrity of publishing in traditional intermediaries can be evident of inaccuracy. 

In conclusion, media organisations have evolved to the contemporary methods of the digital evolution and actively transformed from ‘transmission’ to ‘communication’. Media industries have embraced this changed and integrated the ability to maximise responses and interactiveness of the audiences virtually and physically. While printing publications had believed that it was revolutionary, it historically is. But by the altering position today there is more room to change due to Web 2.0. The level of participation, collaboration and expression will not cease to slow down and will only heighten and emerge further to connect individuals socially, and shape their relationships and experiences with others. As Rusbridger mentions Stowe Boyd commenting on social networking, “I think that the rise of the social web,…is not really about the the end of what came before, but instead is the starting point for what comes next: richer and more complex societies” (Glaysher 2010) summarises the consistent and transformative role and boundaries of publishing in which it has empowered individuals and understanding the world.

List of References

Images (CC)

Cavazza, F 2009, Diagram of Social Media Landscape, digital image, flickr.com, accessed 6 November 2014

<https://www.flickr.com/photos/fredcavazza/3428921418/in/photolist-6e17SN-6sriRT-e1yRKg-8w6RQs-7VcaHZ-47h422-9t2eNH-74XC95-g5jTWF-BXwqH-75A3Hr-46uZse-pACrUJ-9ovmXT-75Amai-7BbKMK-6sQKt2-6QJyfN-5wLUMK-7o3nrY-dV5KXX-e1HpQq-dwzdtC-eLTWFA-6tXvwF-dUmKE4-bJczj-oERUbe-4tua4C-eZHHZs-6xaHEe-bSVp5X-T6DPg-98eeXn-6yKZEV-dskNAc-6KB5d2-6sydbF-75AaE6-8MKrAH-dZxNRq-br5x86-96vDQN-p2ggs2-74Tt1v-5uhL7d-5fUP5G-mHWGYo-6AX2Qo-3KwKHD/>

Flickr 2007, Image of novel Lovely Bones, digital image, accessed 6 November 2014

<https://www.flickr.com/photos/7562870@N08/1859663674/in/photolist-3QkgdN-bBEXzn-boL4d7-bj4FKe-9QZQQw-jumqpy-M3CYk-7z94y9-8ScxgG-ocQu3-odhB2-xZxE1-5Cz54Q-odhZ4-4LFni9-bY2hey-bY2fBA-5RHtBm-7uc6uu-dNV138-ocUpU-odiqi-ocUGk-odiAa-5m83jw-odj3b-ocPuj-ocQDw-ocPBD-odhFh-ocQNH-ocUhw-ocPxN-ocQUV-ocQpx-ocSrH-ocS8w-ocSow-odiLy-odiR1-ocMQC-ocSv2-ocUDt-ocMQb-odhwL-ocUAb-odim2-ocRYq-ocR1r-ocUvJ>

Maryland GovPics 2012, Image of posting a tweet on a mobile phone, digital image, flickr.com, accessed 6 November 2014

<https://www.flickr.com/photos/mdgovpics/6756447541/in/photolist-bi3qkZ-8yd4WC-bi3mnP-bZKi6L-avgZqq-4qVUMu-6zeUVs-5BpnGU-5ikBoJ-5XW7XZ-7TShNT-bi3kEi-9fvD4a-bi3ysR-55St5v-8XDEMN-6awStX-819h1E-842Xot-bi3osD-9gQU3M-ionEEk-bi3i1t-bi3p1x-bi3nSg-bi3jwT-bi3nf4-bi3saH-bi3FF8-bi3har-bi3DKK-bi3vR6-bi3BuF-bi3Lhg-bi3woT-5W5mhY-bi3xX4-5xxxvZ-7QuFji-5zCcKi-bi3uuF-bi3Kct-bi3Jog-bivywa-bi3LYX-bi3uYR-bi3Cfa-bi3xfX-bi3MAe-bi3tdp>

Sydney Morning Herald 2014, Image of a Twitter Posting News, digital image, twitter.com, accessed 5 November 2014 <https://twitter.com/smh/status/529560820397916160>

W&M Swem Library Williamsburg 2010, Image collection of Bibles, photography, accessed 6 November 2014, 

 <https://www.flickr.com/photos/scrc/4680078722/in/photolist-88yCms-62Yv2h-6BxAua-6RJm34-bxTHLA-8tjFoE-2HZNXM-4XgQmE-f7Lze6-bLNqMi-bLNpEB-bxTHoU-8FV6A-8FVjE-8FVbj-8FVfM-6zLjJh-78NxRN-359FpE-fMQE1x-fMQDX8-fMQDZK-53jA8m-dancRx-nkNWTb-dancUt-nC5B9s-RSrvK-a4EcAc-aBi84A-8EsQ6n-8EsPpV-8EsNDr-aMGnyH-8KgkNF-8EvXZA-8EsQq2-8EsLBe-8EvWqs-8EvYpo-8EsPKP-8EsNkH-8EsPyH-8EsL1g-8EvXh3-8EvYdf-8EvUpJ-8EvXDw-8EvZv3-bxTJ5C>

Bokesoy, D 2008, ‘E-newspapers: Revolution or Evolution?’, Open Journal Systems, Vol.1, No.1, accessed 6 November 2014, <http://fdt.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/fdt/article/view/4902/1758>

Brannon, B.A 2002, ‘The Laser Printer as an Agent of Change: Fixity and Fluxion in the Digital Age’ Publishing Research Quarterly, vol.17, no.4, pp.353-363

Glaysher, F 2010, accessed 5 November 2014, <https://fglaysher.com/Post_Gutenberg_Publishing.html>

Jenkins, H 2004, ‘The Cultural Logic of Media Convergence’, International Journal of Cultural Studies, vol. 7, no.1, pp.33-43

Light, A Rogers, Y 1999, ‘Conversation as Publishing: the Role of News Forums on the Web’, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol.4, No.4, accessed 6 November 2014, <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.wwwproxy0.library.unsw.edu.au/enhanced/doi/10.1111/j.1083-6101.1999.tb00103.x/>

Miller, R 2013, ‘Online Publishing Paradigms Shift Power to Writers’, Media Redux, Vol.36, No.4, accessed 6 November 2014, <http://web.b.ebscohost.com.wwwproxy0.library.unsw.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=133203dd-5536-480f-bffe-b15790e1beff%40sessionmgr114&vid=1&hid=128>

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Wikipedia, 2014, accessed 5 November 2014, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publishing>

QUESTION 4:

"When publishing changes, so does society, investigate and compare the impact of two publication technologies, one pre-1900 and one post-2000, on a specific aspect of society."

Publishing and print is changes varied from the past until now, not only the ways it changes in the publishing technology, format or the way od production, but also bring some changes in the economic, social and educational aspect in between pre-1900 and post-2000.

Changes in Publishing itself

    Source: http://darwinslibrary.com/2010/04/evolution-not-extinction/

The publishing change is like the evolution of the human, who from apelike creature on all fours to upright human. The publishing changes is from the initial stone writing into a paper in 1900s, also with the laser printing technology invented, the handwriting can be instead, books can be released, the amount of books can be manufactured with this fast printing technology, also, the cover of books is keep changing and improved in increasing years, at last, after 2000, the Internet and  smart phones are invented, the books are turned into digitalized version, people using both laptops or smart phones or eBook readers   to read books, so that the press is changed into digitalization as well.

Source: http://darwinslibrary.com/2010/04/evolution-not-extinction/

The picture shows that the evolution of publishing is changing from the bottom to the top, from the root of the tree to the end of the branch. From the storytelling, oral, into writing by scroll, manuscript, then with the technology advancement, printing can from script writing into newspaper, even color printing of magazine, post-2000, with digitalization revolution, the audiobooks, eBooks are also released.

  Source: http://blog.wan-ifra.org/2011/10/14/mobile-behavior-changes-dramatically

 The publishing is changing its format throughout a whole century, form the textual based newspaper transformed into radio with aural component, then becoming visualized and television programs appeared, and then with digital revolution in 2000, all data become digitalized, until now the mobile cultures. With the change in its format of publishing, the human behaviors are also being affected, people are tend to rely on their social media devices, and increase the isolation among people since they are less to communicate to each other and usually communicate by using with their phones only. The ‘check-in’, sharing posts through social media platform becoming a part of their lifestyle and cannot be separated, they think the ‘sharing’ is an important communication in their social life.

    Source http://project-middle-grade-mayhem.blogspot.com.au/2012/02/new-publishing-world.html

Compared to the past, in the society nowadays, a e-reader can be replaced a printed book with more functions and volume. An e-reader can with the content of aural and also visual content, not only the text or wording comparing to the past in 1900s. Visualization is become very common in the society after 2000s, visual component can act as a compliment to the wording or text structure, making readers understand the meaning easily. Also, an e-reader can contain a large volume of books, reader can just bring a e-reader, and pick up the book they want to read easily, instead of bringing a bulk of books.

  Source: http://www.3dissue.com/digital-publishing-industry/

In the 2000s, the digital publishing becomes the news trend in media industries. With the social network revolution, increase the demand of digital publishing, this become a new strategy for producers for increase the distribution to much wider audiences. Self-publishing also becomes more accepted in 2000s, people could publish their products through internet platform, not only in the traditional way that through the publishing media agencies. The knowledge and information guides are freely available to self-publishers across the internet. The growth of social media platforms allows self-publishers to understand trend, needs and opinions of readers.

Changes in the way of production

  Source: http://www.newrepublic.com/article/115010/publishing-industry-thriving

In this picture, we can find out the shift of digitalization in publishing and its impact in economic aspect, the way of publishing production of media has been changed from printed book into E-Book. Because throughout the digital version of E-Book, the cost of production can be reduced, the producers do not have to pay for high-priced hardcovers and paperbacks, they can earn more net profit, and the total revenue can be increase. It is a new way of production in 20s century, historically the e-book replaced the print books, with the lower cost on e-book, the producers can sell their e-boo at lower price and brings more attraction to its consumers.

Changes in the society

Source: Pew Internet Surveys, 2006–2013

After the debut of smart phones, the behavior and consumption pattern of the citizens has been changed. With the increasing number of the people using cell phones, people are rely more on digital media devices when compared to pre-1900, and the reading behavior among people are shifting to tablets or phones, not only rely on laptops. People are reading books on e-reader or on the Web. So this affects the format of production of publishing as well. A decreasing in the number of printed books.

Source: http://www.thebookdesigner.com/2011/01/how-self-publishing-changes-the-bond-between-readers-and-writers/

These two pictures can show that the way of communication has been changed in between the writer and reading since the change of publishing. Pre-1900, writers and the readers can be communicate only when there are some events are held, however, with the digitalization revolution, readers can reach the writer throughout different type of social media channels, such as Facebook, or some mobile applications. The relationship between reader and writer can be much closer, and the communication is border than before.

  Source: https://richarddennison.wordpress.com/

These two pictures show that the impact of commenting in the publishing process. With the change in publishing, the commenting is involved in the society nowadays compared to the 1900s. Pre-1900. There is no commenting, the message is direct and the product at the end is the content what we exactly want to send or want to speak to. However, with digital publishing and online platform, with the commenting in the process, the message that we want present is not exactly with the product produced at the end, the value is not bound up in the content alone, but mostly in the conversation it triggers. The comments of audiences is unpredictable, the statement might have chance to be misinterpret by the others.  Also, the self-publishers might have to learn how to attract the attention of audiences in online platform, they have to learn how to trigger up some comments on their product or generate a discussion in the more keen competition in publication and publishing. When compared to 1900s.

  Source: http://ebookspublishing.blogspot.com.au/2014/05/ebook-publishing-software-changed-way.html

 The changes in the publishing, the media is not disaggregating anymore, but aggregation. Pre-1900, people read book and magazines in print, they listen to music with tape or CD, and they watch TV programs on television, but with the publishing change, news and books can be read on the Internet, people can watch TV program and listen to the music throughout their all-in-one media device, such as smarts phone, laptops these media devices aggregate all functions of one media device in the past. And this also changing the behavior among people, they might spend more with their laptops or smart phones, rather than using radio, television or even reading a book.

Source: www.dreamstime.com

 With the publishing changes, there are more and more channels provided to the user to share and express their ideas, the user-generated content is increase, compared to the past. in the age of pre-1900, people might not have chance to publish their opinions, they are the one who usually receiving information from the media producers, but in 2000s, they are also ‘publisher’, they can publish their opinions or daily life throughout social medias, such as Facebook, Instagram, WordPress etc..

Source: http://youarenotgoingtoseebutread.blogspot.com.au/2012/06/comparison-of-impacts-of-publishing.html

These two pictures show the changes in the publishing production and the relationship between readers and the producers. “The book of the past reveals its individual experience uniquely. The book of the future reveals our collective experience uniquely” this indicates the difference from the past and nowadays. In the past, the pre-artifact system, it involving very few people, it is immutable and self-contained; it is a bit of isolation. The books will be done and produced before reached and being sent to the readers. In 20s century, it becoming post artifact system which people can be engaged in the artifact, it increase the connectivity and the mutability of artifact. It involving the continuousengagement with readers and allow public to generate comment, discussion with online platform.

Changes in music industries

Source: http://www.businessinsider.com.au/these-charts-explain-the-real-death-of-the-music-industry-2011-2

 Music can be a kind of publishing as well. The music industries development has been seriously affected with the change in publishing production. The photo show that the music industry is well-growing in the past, even continue to the 20s century, but later on with social network revolution, the sales and the demand of the CDs is sharply decrease, but the rise of digitalized music, such as mp3 format. People are tending to use their personal multimedia devices to listen to music, rather than using CDs player or listen to the CD album one by one.  

  Changes in Education

Source: http://www.library.wisc.edu/news/2014/10/21/symposium-aims-to-encourage-campus-wide-conversation-on-publishing-landscape/

There is a big contrast between pre1900 and post-2000 in the way of publishing and type, people are not doing the manuscript, hand writing after the typewriter is invented, people using typewriter to type documents or books, however, n the 2000s, with technological advancement, the computers, laptops replacing the method of writing, they using computers to type documents, books, even school assignments. The scholar publishing is debut by the changes of publishing; it is published concern among students, researchers and scholars. Open-access journals and archives can be reached by scholars and provide them the opportunity to discuss publishing throughout the online social networks.

Source: http://openscience.com/how-open-access-changes-the-future-of-the-book-methods-like-books-sprints-and-liquid-books-are-inspired-by-the-faster-turn-around-of-open-access-publishing/

The publishing does also make effect in the education. The historian explores the effects of the printing press, and finds that the rise of book printing establishes a different form of knowledge. For example, the citation, which still using nowadays, making the books becomes easily available and allows open access publishing. The open access in academic publishing  fosters a growing range of publishing options The ‘Book Sprint’ and the ‘Liquid Books’ can be easily produced with increasing speed in publishing production and technology improvement. The production of a book is in a more collaborative process, the process has been transformed from a peer review model to a peer-to-peer review model.

Source: http://www.newrepublic.com/article/115010/publishing-industry-thriving

  Even though the demand of e-book is increasing and more people shifting their reading behavior into digital version, however, it does not mean that the revenue of book business has been decreased and lost its competitive when compared to broad Internet networking, in fact, the revenue of the book business is even increase much more than it has before in 2000 or more forward.    

  Source: http://www.musicdish.com/mag/?id=10130

Introduction

Discourse and ideologies are developed through the media and publishing to mass media and cultures exposed to them. In turn, they can be seen to develop associations and conventions to debate matters revolving around particular subject matters. These are been by Edwards as socio technical systems that produce knowledge about the whole world (2010), and can be coined under the term Infrastructural Globalism.

When we are to discuss the term Data Friction, we can see it as the act or the effort in publishing or spreading global data. This data is aggregated on global platforms, giving it exponential growth and distribution around digital world. To further these concepts, i'll be using Dribbble - a creative network for designers to collaborate and comment on each others world.

Above (Dribbble.com)

Dribbble: Show and Tell for Designers 

What is it's background?

Dribbble began as a side project for friends; Rich Thornett and Dan Cederholm in Massachusetts. It is a company that aims to helping the world's design talent share their creations and also to help the employment of these individuals.

What are its impacts?

Over time, it has become a go-to resource for new design, styles and inspiration - as well as connecting "designers all around the globe" (Dribbble, 2014).  It plays a unique role, in contrast to the other design blogs. Dribbble is invite-only, which aggregates the quality and creates exclusivity on the internet.

What "data" does it publish?

The data, in the case of Dribbble, are called 'shots' - these are an image file of a 'dribbbler' (a designer, in this case). It has an two-way communication model, which allows comments and apprecations. Alongside this, the data can be saved in personal archives - or 'buckets' for collection and saving for future use.

Where does this data come from?

Since Dribbble is a community of designers; we can see the data coming from web designers, graphic designers, illustrators, icon artists, typographers, logo designers and other creative types. These artists are from all around the world, creating a hub for all work, processes and current projects.

How is this placed within what Paul Edwards calls ‘Infrastructural globalism’?

Dribbble is a system which is a hub to produce knowledge about the whole world. Everyday, there are thousands of 'data' being read, enjoyed and inspiring to designers from the other side of the world. It has the ability to aggregate and publish, categorise and give authority to popular posts. It is a very powerful tool and can acknowledge some unseen talent from any country.

What kinds of ‘data friction’ are involved? How open is all this to manipulation or variation?

Interestingly, the idea of copyright between designers has always been an issue. In saying this, each piece of data gains a piece of value when posted on Dribbbble; this is in regards to the copyright which is applied to each post they make. Point out the former, in regards to the invite-only aspect, the community has all been tied connected - which maintains a culture of respect and sharing. All in all, it is quite simple to copy paste any image - also images or data, have the option of posting hi-resolution for viewing please, though can still easily be stolen by anyone.

Above (Dribbble.com)

References

Dribbble - Show and tell for designers. 2014. Dribbble - Show and tell for designers. [ONLINE] Available at: https://dribbble.com. [Accessed 07 November 2014]