rad(ish)

SO, nearly everyone you know has probably heard of an IQ test, whether it’s been via ‘official’ tests, or more likely, online quizzes. They all aim to quantify an individual’s intelligence, though it is much harder to actually do so than one may think. This is because, like almost all things about human beings, intelligence is more complicated than people believe it to be.

Though the idea of IQ, or intelligence quotient, was coined in 1912 by psychologist William Stern, it wasn’t the first instance in which a test had been created to determine someone’s wits. The first IQ test was actually made in France, by Albert Binet, in 1904, a way to measure children’s level of preparedness for school. However, while this was a measure of intelligence, it wasn’t quite what they defined as IQ at the time. Only when Lewis Terman, an American psychologist, created the Stanford-Benet Intelligence Scales based on Binet’s work, that IQ was popularly defined as the tests result, mental age, divided by the age of the test taker. This is where common reference of an IQ below 70 being particularly moronic originated, as below 70 was the lowest classification you could give. This test was notably created only with a basis upon white American citizens. This would not be a problem, were this trend not present in tests applied to people from different cultures.

           During the time period in which these tests were created, there was a general consensus that some  races were inferior in an inherent manner, though it was only certain in theory. As this was also a period of great scientific expansion, people leapt at the idea of having this theory corroborated by hard data, and thus the IQ test was set to fill this gap. This way of measuring IQ was directly tied in with the idea that people of color such as Native Americans, Indians, and African Americans were less evolved than those who were pale skinned, and thus data would naturally prove this as fact. One of these early pseudoscientific publications claimed that reaction time was fastest in people of fair skin, thus proving that reaction time increased with evolution, furthermore, another ‘study’ in, coincidentally, 1912, claimed that “the mental qualities of the Negro…shows a woeful lack of power of sustained activity and constructive conduct.” (Bruner, Frank G. (1912),   It was only a matter of time until more official IQ tests were to come into the equation.

           By the 1920’s, IQ tests were gaining popularity, especially in the US, and these tests were quite common, they took a lot of time to complete. Thus they adapted as a written test for the army, with positions given to those of higher IQ. These tests were also implemented in US studies of immigrants, even though some of the participants taking the test may not have known English, making it fairly impossible to get a decent score. The strict Immigration Act of 1924 was put into effect using mainly this study, citing a need to ensure that the IQ of the nation would not be dragged downward. As an result, Ann Frank’s father was likely denied entrance to the US because of these restrictions.

Even though this shit may seem like parts of the past, questions and inconsistencies in culture still are relevant for evaluating whether IQ tests are really accurate, or even measuring intelligence, especially in a world where people still place enormous importance on ‘intelligence’ tests, and often judge people based upon their scores. This is why research by Richard Lynn, a psychologist who’s a known supporter, is still important to pay attention to and discredit. While Lynn is generally not respected by members of his field, his research, at first glance, may seem credible, especially for people who want to believe his theories, and only glance once without considering the reliability of his work. Lynn is the author of several racially slanted IQ studies; his works have been discredited several times by examination of his data, which has been found to be poorly collected and evaluated. His studies often claim that people of darker skin have lower intelligence, making their purpose in propaganda very clear. On top of this, his statements have the tendency to evaluate the worth of people based on the studies which he conducted.

           For one, those original ‘intelligence’ tests were not meant to measure intelligence, but to measure the abilities of French children in order to catch any which were falling behind. The original Binet test was created because of concerns that children would fall behind in the elementary education that had recently became compulsory in France. Much of this was due to the rates of illiteracy, especially in older children. In fact, the whole idea that you can definitely measure intelligence is shaky at best. The idea of intelligence is very nebulous. For example, can you say that this sample question of a modern Binet test, “Why do we have houses?”, is something that measures ‘intelligence’? Or, general knowledge/’common sense’? Also, while there are technically 14 answers (S. M. Mohsin 2002) to this question, there is no doubt that there are other ‘incorrect’ answers that would make sense, especially in cultures that are further removed from Western civilization. It gets even more complicated when you add in the idea of multiple intelligences, such as spatial reasoning vs verbal intelligence.  While it is true that there are definite differences between people’s intelligence (or intelligences), it’s akin to comparing emotional pains in that each is both intimately scaled, and impossible to accurately compare.

The common concept of IQ is inherently flawed. If you took a test only to be disappointed, remember what it is claiming to find is likely not accurate, nor even the correct subject matter, and that trying to compare intelligence is like trying to compare who has gone through the worst in life; it’s an inherently prideful and pointless endeavor, as often no true conclusion can be reached.

Anyway that’s it.

Some stuff referenced…

“The primitive races in America”, Psychological Bulletin, 9: 380–390, http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1926-02217-001

Mohsin, Mahsher Abidi Syed Mohammad. Elementary psychology. pg. 210. Asia Pub. House, 1967.

Journal of Euthicles, Athens

Entry 1: ACL 5 Hekatombaion, Ol. Praxiergus

Arrived at the agora early, hauling wine and olives to trade for some copper and tin. There is some talk about war between the poleis, which poleis are involved I do not know. I have heard Sparta to Thebes to any and all, made no matter who. I needed to purchase copper and tin to get a new helmet. My friend, Saphoraion, took a blow in the last battle against the Persians and his helmet is the reason he is still making pottery, teaching his son the ways of Athens, and pestering his wife. There has been peace since then, so I assumed I would not have to fight again, but that does not seem to be the case.

The metals I looked for usually came from Phoenician traders out of the west, so I headed to the barbarian section of the agora.  Along the way, I traded for some wheat, and I stopped in front of the Altar of the 12 Gods and made a quick offering to Hermes, may he grant me skill in negotiation. Reached the Phoenician metal traders before midday. The long skirts of the Phoenicians in front of me were laced with gold, accenting their dark hair and eyes tastefully (9).

Entry 2: ACL 5 Hekatombaion, Ol. Praxiergus

The copper merchants were friendly but negotiated fiercely, they seemed to place a high value on trading and commerce over more noble pursuits.  We Hellenes value art, philosophy, politics, and notably warfare as well as trade. Such is my goal in acquiring the materials for my new helm. I held my own over the commercial battlefield, eventually haggling down to a crate of olives for the copper I need. After the deal was done and my copper packed into the cart I asked the two copper sellers about the goings-on from around the Great Sea (Mediterranean Sea).  Apparently, Naxos is threatening to leave the Delian League (1.) and some more Hellenic colonies are being founded in Southern Italia.  I do not understand why anyone would want to leave one of the polis, they are the most excellent civilizations on Earth. Or why Naxos would leave the Delian League, the most noble alliance since Zeus’s pantheon, the Spartans are brutes with little appreciation for the virtues of freedom.  Wonder what will come of these developments (14).

I thanked the Phoenician merchants for the information and they said that another Phoenician ship from far away would be arriving tomorrow.  I left the agora, stopped by the Altar again on the way back home, thanking Hermes and asking for wisdom from Athena for the Archon in dealing with Naxos.

Entry 3: ACL 6 Hekatombaion, Ol. Praxiergus

Woke up this morning eager to deliver the materials for my helmet to the smith, the news about Naxos has been troubling me, better get my armor ready as soon as I can. First, I spend some time with my son, training him on the doru, before his lessons at the palaestra (13 and 15).

I arrived at the agora early and caught sight of the Phoenicians goods traveling to the market. The tin traders were even more richly dressed and bearded than their copper trader counterparts (2). They wore elegant collars and simple bracelets.  Their fashion actually reminded me of some Egyptian traders that I saw in the agora a few archons past (3 and 4).  The tin trade must be lucrative.

I had save my good wine to trade for the tin today, so the traders and I found an agreement fairly quickly.  They tried to get more wine for the price by bringing out a slave of theirs with fair hair and skin. He looked strange and out of place among the brown Phoenicians, but the tin merchants told me that he was from the island where they acquired the tin.  I asked them afterwards where that was.  They smiled cleverly and merely said “far west and north, where the sun is dimmer” (comes from the idea that winter is harsher and overcast and rain is common on the British Isles), I could tell they were being purposefully vague, so  I asked what this place was called. They called them the Tin Islands or Cassiterides (Herodotus), the slave perked up when he heard this name, but stayed silent (5).

I thanked the Phoenicians, packed up my purchases, and headed to the smith.  I delivered the materials and the payment to the smith and approved the standard design of the helmet. I went home and spoke to my wife about the day.  I shall sleep well tonight.

Entry 4: ACL 28 Hekatombaion, Ol. Praxiergus

The Athenian fleet has set sail for Naxos, carrying the fate of Naxos with it. I took my son to see the naútēs (sailors) off (14).  I told him that these were brave men upholding the might and virtue of Athens, he must know this if he is to be a citizen of Athens one day. Next, I took him to the Parthenon atop the Acropolis to visit the goddess of Athena and ask for the fleet to have wisdom in strategy and battle. On the way up I told my son to always honor the gods when making a decision or engaging in big events and the gods will see that he is successful.

Inside the temple, I could see my son perk up and grow a little taller.  We walked to the magnificent statue of Athena. My son looked in awe at the stunning white and gold statue of the goddess of wisdom. He was silent for a moment before asking why Athena did not look like a normal Greek, “why is she so pale?”.  I thought for a moment and answered: “Because she is a goddess, why would she look like a normal human?”.  My son looked disappointed at this answer, so I leaned close to him and whispered, “and probably she looks that way because the artist liked these colors on his statue over other colors.”  My son smiled a little, like he was in on the secret with the artist, looked at Athena one last time and turned away. I think my son will remember today (12).

Commentary

The preceding entries all focus on an Athenian citizen who believes in Athenian greatness and in the values and qualities of his society. Each entry covers a particular aspect of the ancient world that a person in the Mediterranean or Aegean Seas would encounter.  The man is more well off than most Athenians. However, this financial security means nothing in the heat of battle when a stray javelin or spear may find your flesh, so he is investing in the materials for an armor upgrade.  Greek hoplites had to provide their own equipment for battle and it was seen as a civic duty to battle for your city-states glory. The battle where the man’s friend took a blow is the Battle of Plataea, the final land battle of the Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BCE, only about 6 years from the time of the entries.  The sources for these entries include websites referencing trade in Ancient Greece and Greek warfare.

The man goes to Phoenician merchants for the raw materials that the blacksmith would use to create bronze: copper and tin. Tin specifically was found in the British Isles, or what Herodotus called the Cassiterides or the Tin Islands, even though he believed the islands to be a myth.  The Phoenician’s trade network spanned most of the Mediterranean, and they may have also travelled to the British Isles and Ireland. The  information about their voyages to Northern Europe  comes from late, and not necessarlily reliable, Roman sources(https://phoenicia.org/himilco.html; https://gatesofnineveh.wordpress.com/2011/12/13/high-north-carthaginian-exploration-of-ireland/) It is, however, a well-established fact that tin came to the Mediterranean from the British Isles.  I used dramatic license to allow the Phoenician traders to havea slave from Northern Europe. Herodotus describes the people that he calls Budini who live somewhere in Eastern Europe. He explains that the Budini have blue eyes and ruddish hair, and thus they look different from the Greek colonists living in the same area (Book IV, 108-9, see http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=budini-geo) Recent research of the ancient Greek DNA suggests that Ancient Greeks looked similar to modern Greek, who are generally dark-eyed and dark-haired (http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/08/greeks-really-do-have-near-mythical-origins-ancient-dna-reveals ) The description of the dress Phoenicians traders is sourced from a late nineteenth century French classicist and archaeologist, so this information is dated.

In the year of Praxiergus, or 470-471 BCE the island of Naxos attempted to leave the Delian League, causing the Athenians to respond with naval force. The source for this was a book by Peter Brand on Sparta and Athens.  I set this as the backdrop of the scene where the man visits the Parthenon even though the Parthenon was not finished until 432 BCE. The statue of Athena in the Parthenon is a magnificent gold and ivory statue that showed off the god’s splendour to the Athenians. The statue’s surface is much lighter than traditional Greek skin tones, and I wanted the son to question his father on the reason for this. The source for the statue is the ancient Greek historian Pausanias circa 200 AD.

Each entry represented a part of Athenian or Greek life that a citizen might experience and shows the attitude of the Greeks to their surroundings.

Journal of Olorus, Olympia

After travelling to Olympia, we have finally arrived at the festival. My son and I were at the events all day taking in all the sights.  At one point a crowd begin gathering in the amphitheater and a man came on stage.  My son pulled me into one of the seats and the man began to speak.  He told of the war with the Persians and our great triumph (my son especially loved this part), he told of the many peoples of the world from the Scythians in the north and their eyes the color of the sky and the lessons of the slave war, to the black (chroma de melanas) Ethiopians  in the south. A rather embarrassing moment came when the man told of far off lands and  my son burst into tears in front of the whole assembly.  My son was rather proud though, when the man responded to my son’s tears by telling me that “your son’s soul yearns for knowledge” (6).  Afterward my son told me he wants to become a scholar like the man. My son, Thucydides, will make a great scholar if he refrains from sudden bouts of emotion.

Commentary

This is an actual story told in Byzantine tales of the Ancient Greece called the Photius Bibliothec about how Thucydides went to a telling by Herodotus of his histories, where a young Thucydides broke down and Herodotus responded in the manner told in the entry.  However, the original Byzantine story is not very reliableand is not sourced well. Olorus is supposedly the name of the father of Thucydides as well as the name of a famous Thracian king (6). “Ethiopia” was the Greek name for the area south of Egypt, and they often used it for the kingdom of Nubia (also known as Kush). For  Herodotus’s account of the Ethiopians, or Nubians, see http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/nebrowser?id=tgn,7000489&query=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126

For the Scythian war with their slaves, see, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.%204.1&lang=original Herodotus and other ancient authors described the way different peoples looked, but they did not have the concept of race (http://maximum-cat-entropy.tumblr.com/post/168023302098/ancient-greeks-and-race-herodotus)

Journal of Male, Farmer, Wartime

The war forced me from my daily life of tending to my fields; for in fearing for my life, I had to take refuge in the crowded city with those who are defenseless like me. Disappointment flooded my being as when I returned home from the safety of the city, for everything in my name was destroyed by Spartan hands. However, I must thank the gods for my good fortune compared to others; those who do not have homes are forced to live in god-forsaken places within the city, where privacy and cleanliness have come to naught. If time continues this way, I fear for my ruin, as my fields are my source of survival. War has not only disrupted my life, but other families as well. Women whose husbands have died at war are now forced to find lowly jobs, as opposed to the lives used to consist of solely weaving and bearing children. Those who once supervised slaves have almost becomes slaves themselves.

Source: The History of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides, Book 5

Athenian Soldier present at the Melian Dialogue

Entry 1: Wartime has caused Athens to consider making the strategic takeover of the Melos. Their island is a crucial location for the triremes to resupply and reorganize, for they do not have the capability of carrying long-term supplies that the men need to stay strong and steadfast. We were instructed to accompany ambassadors to speak with the Melian councilmen, for they were steadfast in their convictions that they would like peace. They pleaded with the Athenian men sent that they were too descendants of the Lacedaemonians, and to consider them equals, but this was to no avail, for our men stated they would only consider those who were equal in power their equals. As this discussion ended in a stalemate, we returned to our camp and await further instructions.

Winter After:

Entry 2: I am saddened by the turn of events that has occurred. At first the Melians were adamant in their ways that the Lacedaemonians would come to save them from their fate of takeover by our men. However, as time closed in, and our armies came back to besiege the Melians, some broke in their steadfastness, and surrendered. However, I do not believe that anyone could have anticipated the only other ending that would occur today would be of their lives.We were instructed to have no mercy upon them, and no Melian walked away free. Melian men were left with not a measure of life left in them, and I can still hear the screams of the women and children as they watched their men as they were subjected to this horror. I pray to the gods that I will always be spared a life of hardship these women and children will to be subjected to.

Commentary

The preceding entries reflect that of an individual who is a soldier, and ends at Thucydides’ dramatization of the Siege of Melos, reflecting his Melian Dialogue. Thucydides played a large role in documenting the history of the Peloponnesian War; these entries are an alternative means of presenting his information.

Sources

Brand, Peter J. Athens & Sparta: Democracy vs. Dictatorship.

Perrot et Chipiez, pp. 519, 523, &c.

Ibid. pp. 531, 533; Di Cesnola, pp. 129, 131, &c.

Perrot et Chipiez, pp. 527, 533, 539; Di Cesnola, pp. 129, 145, 154.

https://gatesofnineveh.wordpress.com/2011/12/13/high-north-carthaginian-exploration-of-ireland/

Photius Bibliothec. Cod. lx p 59, cited by Rawlinson (1859), p. 15

https://www.ancient.eu/article/833/the-athenian-calendar/

socrates.clarke.edu

https://www.ancient.eu/article/115/trade-in-ancient-greece/

http://www.phoenician.org/phoenicians.htm

http://classics.mit.edu/Thucydides/pelopwar.html

https://www.ancient.eu/article/785/athena-parthenos-by-phidias/

https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2015/08/06/armament-and-fighting-style-greek-vs-persian/

Brand, Peter J. Athens & Sparta: Democracy vs. Dictatorship.

(This was written for my History of Prejudice class at my college)

There are 2 main difficulties that arise when racists attempt to justify their bigotry with historical precedent (other than racism itself). The first issue is that historical precedent is, by it’s nature, outdated and out-of-tune with the modern era. The second issue is that modern racists don’t know what ancient people such as the great Greek historian Herodotus actually believed. For now, we are going to focus on the second issue. Certainly, ancient Greeks were aware that there were different groups of people, but that doesn’t mean that they thought about race the same way it is thought of today. Take Herodotus’ work as an example. The most widely available translation of Herodotus’ work is also the oldest translation by George Rawlinson, who lived in Victorian era London. Now, I can’t speak to how faithfully Rawlinson thought he translated Herodotus’ work, but the fact remains that he undoubtedly had his own biases, some of which found their way into his translation.

Herodotus uses two main words to describe groups of people: ἔθνος and γένος. He also uses ethnic names. The most important of these names is Ἕλληνάς (Hellenas) which means Greeks. Γένος refers to something along the lines of blood kin, or people who share common ancestry, for example a big family. Γένος, which is pronounced like “genos”, is a precursor of English words like genealogy or generation. Genos can also be used to describe types of animals. The word ἔθνος (pronounced “ethnos”) is used more frequently by Herodotus and at its vaguest means “group of people who live together.” Herodotus frequently uses it to describe people who share a common language. The word ἔθνος is a precursor to the English ethnic or ethnicity. Both words were translated by George Rawlinson during the 1800s as “race”, “tribe”, and “nation”.

Due to Rowlinson’s culture, he on occasion edits Herodotus’ work so that it would be acceptable to his readers’ sensibilities. One such occasion is when he edits the phrase “αἰδοῖα γυναικὸς”, which means female genitalia, to say “effeminate”. According to Herodotus, a king created stone obelisks to commemorate his victories. In places where the people did not fight bravely, the king had an image of female genitalia carved on the obelisk to mock them. The king was implying that the townspeople were pussies/cunts, and Herodotus said this explicitly. Rowlinson instead wrote, “[The king] inscribed on the pillars, in addition to these particulars, an emblem to mark that they were … unwarlike and effeminate” (http://classics.mit.edu//Herodotus/history.html). Rawlinson, publishing in Victorian England, probably wouldn’t have thought twice about editing the words. It is not unthinkable that he might preform similar mild censorships on words talking about race. For example, Rawlinson frequently refers to places located in Libya (Africa) or India as having tribes, whereas the Greeks and Egyptians and Persians get referred to as nations. In both instances, Herodotus uses the word ἔθνος or a derivative, but only in the case of the later groups does Rawlinson translate to nation instead of tribe. In places where Herodotus merely wrote the name of or mentioned a group, Rawlinson would translate this as “race”. For example, Herodotus wrote “Greek” (Ἑλληνικόν), and Rawlinson translated it as “Greek race”.  I am sure that Rawlinson did his best to produce as accurate a translation as he could, but that doesn’t change the fact that he was a British man from Victorian England.

since i only ever send rick rolls to ppl i figured id just post one for all my followers for april fools day this year to save myself the effort

Never. Too many have died for the way they have loved. That needs stop now. 

It is a thin little book.

When I first opened it, I wondered why it was so thin.

Why there wasn’t other books like it.

Other first hand accounts.

I, Pierre Seel, Deported Homosexual: A Memoir of Nazi Terror by Pierre Seel

An Underground Life: Memoirs of a Gay Jew in Nazi Berlin by Gad Beck

The Pink Triangle: The Nazi War Against Homosexuals by Richard Plant

Branded By The Pink Triangle by Ken Setterington