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Human beings have always been fascinated with magic and myth. We like to believe that we might stumble on something that will make us extra special, be it alien parents or scientific experiments with unforeseen consequences. Sometimes, we like to believe that ordinary objects are imbued with supernatural powers that will heal the sick, curse wrongdoers, or bring people back from the dead. History is littered with stories about these objects with supernatural powers. Often, the romance of the story is enough to keep people believing, despite there being little or no evidence to prove it. 10 Drake’s Drum Sir Francis Drake was an explorer, adventurer, slaver, and pirate. He died of dysentery in 1596 off the coast of Panama, and his remains were buried at sea. His effects, however, were sent to his childhood home of Buckland Abbey. Among his possessions was a small leather snare drum, of the sort that would have been beaten to signal an attack. The drum is not thought to have had any particular significance to Drake. However, along with the drum came a story. It is said that when England is in peril, the drum will beat of its own accord as a warning. And, should anyone beat on the drum to call him home, Francis Drake will return from his watery grave to protect his country. There have been several reports of the drum beating of its own accord. Napoleon is said to have heard it when he was brought into the nearby harbor. It is said to have sounded at the outbreak of World War I and during the evacuation of Dunkirk. It is also said that when the German navy surrendered in 1918, they heard a drum beating, though there was no drum aboard the ship. Whether this was Drake’s Drum or some other supernatural musical instrument is unclear.[1] Recent attempts to remove a replica of the drum from Buckland Abbey were strongly opposed, which is just as well, because the legend also says that if the drum is removed from the abbey, England will fall. Better to be safe than sorry. 9 Busby’s Stoop Chair Thomas Busby was an unpleasant man. He drank too much and was often violent. In 1702, he was convicted of the murder of his father-in-law and, according to custom, was hanged and then gibbeted at a crossroads. His corpse was directed to be suspended from the gibbet (or “stoop,” as it was known in the local dialect) until it decayed. Near the stoop was a roadside inn. It soon became known as Busby’s Stoop Inn. The inn was said to be haunted by Busby’s ghost. In particular, Busby appears to take exception to people sitting in one particular chair. World War II pilots, stationed nearby, thought the chair was unlucky, and several fatal accidents in the 1970s appear to have happened to people who’ve dared to sit in the chair. In 1978, the landlord of the inn, out of concern for his patrons, and maybe in order to attract more of them, donated the chair to a local museum with the condition that no one should ever be allowed to sit in it. Despite regular offers from ghoulish buyers who want to purchase the chair and sensation-seekers who want to sit in it, the museum has refused to sell. The chair is on permanent display, suspended from the wall. Thomas Busby’s reign of terror appears to be over.[2] 8 The Nanteos Cup The Nanteos Cup, considered by some to be the Holy Grail, is a wooden cup (or, more precisely, the remains of what used to be a wooden cup). Originally kept at Strata Florida Abbey in Wales, the cup is now on permanent display at the National Library of Wales.[3] The cup has long been believed to have the power to heal. The cup’s poor condition is probably due to the habit of lending it to the sick, the lame, and the dying. No charge was made for the loan of the cup, though borrowers were required to leave their most valuable asset as a deposit to ensure its return. The cup was stolen in 2014 but returned safely via an anonymous source a year later. It is not known whether the thieves took the cup for its mystical properties, though police might have considered investigating anyone who had recently made a miraculous recovery. 7 The Hand Of Glory Whitby Museum in Yorkshire, England, holds the mummified remains of a human hand, known as a Hand of Glory. The Whitby Hand was discovered in the early 20th century hidden inside the wall of an ancient thatched cottage, and it is thought to be the last example in existence. Supposedly formed from the pickled right hand of a convicted criminal, cut from the gallows while the body was still fresh, the Hand of Glory can be used as a candle by burglars, with the fingers being dipped in special wax and set alight. If a finger refused to catch fire, it meant that someone in the household was awake. The light cannot be extinguished by water or pinching but only by being doused in blood or blue milk. And where are you going to find blue milk?[4] The hand was not only a perpetual source of light, but it was also cheaper than paying a lookout, which could be useful. If you fancy making your own Hand of Glory, and you have the right arm of a recently executed felon at hand, you will need to wrap the hand in a winding sheet, squeeze out the blood, and put it in a clay pot, adding saltpeter, salt, and pepper (for flavor, presumably). Leave it for two weeks, and then expose it to the sun “in the dog-days.” If you are not experiencing dog-days, you could dry it in an oven lined with ferns. Next (and this bit might be tricky), you need to make the candle wax from the fat of a hanged man,...

There’s just something inherently fascinating and creepy about people in masks. Perhaps you’ve read the Goosebumps book or loved the film The Mask. On the other hand, perhaps you’re thinking of a creepy masquerade ball or the emotionless, bloodstained visage of Michael Myers. But there really is something extra horrifying about masks that it’s difficult to put our finger on. Imagine not being able to see the true face of the person looming in the darkness or meeting a ghoul who reveals who they really are by unmasking. See if you recognize any of the following characters and hope you never meet anyone like them on dark nights! 10 Kuchisake-Onna Japanese legend tells of a female ghost called Kuchisake-onna, who is the soul of a woman murdered by her jealous husband.[1] This spirit has been blamed for many assaults and deaths since the 1600s. She stalks dimly lit streets and alleys for victims, covering her mouth with either a fan, handkerchief, or medical mask, depending on which version you hear. She asks travelers two questions. First, she inquires, “Watashi kirei ?” (essentially, “Do you think I’m pretty?”). Then she removes her disguise to show her bloody mouth with the sides cut wide. She asks her final question: “Kore demo?” (“Do you still think so?”). If you affirm her beauty both times, you’ll only walk away with your face slit like hers. Otherwise, you’re dead. Stories of Kuchisake-onna were told during the Edo period (1600s–1800s), but then she disappeared until the 1970s, when a rash of sightings even prompted a police investigation. Could Kuchisake-onna have been turned into hannya, a once human woman consumed by jealousy and transformed into a demoness? 9 Ed Gein’s Human Masks Infamous murderer Ed Gein took the faces (in addition to other body parts) both from his victims and from graves so that he could wear them as masks. Some masks appeared mummified, almost dried out, while others were more carefully preserved, perhaps as Gein grew more confident in his methods of procuration. A few had lipstick applied and looked more lifelike, and four had been stuffed with paper and hung on the wall of his bedroom, almost like hunting trophies. The rest were put into plastic or paper bags, one of which was found by Deputy Arnie Fritz when he was investigating the house.[2] It was nestled in a decaying robe thrown behind the kitchen door. When he opened the bag and saw hair, he reached in to pull the contents out. When he lifted the mask to the light, he realized it was the local tavern owner, Mary Hogan, who had gone missing three years previously. 8 Maori Masks The Maori, who are indigenous to New Zealand, believe that masks, as well as other taonga (“treasures”), have spirits inside them that are tapu (“taboo”). Traditional beliefs also dictate that pregnant or menstruating women are tapu as well, so if they two should meet with something else that’s tapu, then a curse could be invoked.[3] This belief is so strong and deeply rooted in Maori culture that in 2010, the Te Papa museum in Wellington, New Zealand, which was exhibiting items of taonga, strongly recommended that pregnant and menstruating women should stay away. The contact between the sacred Maori artifacts and the women present could create a curse, as both the masks and artifacts and the women had negative wairua, or “spirits.” 7 Lead Masks Case In 1966 in Rio de Janeiro, the corpses of Miguel Jose Viana (left above) and Manoel Pereira da Cruz (right above) were discovered on Vintem Hill wearing business suits and lead eye masks.[4] They were electronics repairmen from Campos dos Goytacazes, over 280 kilometers (174 mi) away, and their deaths remain a mystery to this day. As well as the lead eye masks, they were found with waterproof jackets, an empty water bottle, two towels, and a notebook. They were last seen buying water from a local shop, and Miguel was reported to have been in a great hurry and checking his watch a great deal. All that the notebook said was that they should be at the agreed place at 4:30 PM, to swallow the capsules at 6:30 PM, and to “protect metals” and wait for the mask signal. They were found with this paraphernalia and wearing the masks, but their bodies were not well-preserved enough to discover whether they had swallowed poison. Why they would need lead masks that would protect against radiation, towels, and notes about metals is a mystery. 6 Stolen Mayan Face According to local legend, a mask was recovered at the property of a recently deceased gentleman who lived in Key West, Florida. It was said to have been stolen from an ancient tomb in Egypt decades prior.[5] Psychics who held the mask reported sensing South or Central American energies. The caretaker of the gentleman’s estate said that he heard it was from a tomb, but he had assumed it to be Egyptian rather than from South or Central America. The psychics thought that the pyramid they were seeing was probably an Incan or Mayan tomb instead, and when they held the mask in their hands, it was very cold but then suddenly became hot. It would numb their hands and send tingles up their arms as far as their shoulder. The most sensitive psychics wouldn’t touch it at all. While it is clear there is strange energy attached to it, it’s also possible that there is a curse, something not unheard-of when it comes to protecting sacred items from thieves or other enemies. 5 Carl Tanzler Carl Tanzler was a German immigrant who claimed that during his childhood, he received visions of his one true love from his ancestor, Countess Anna Constantia von Cosel. Despite getting married and having two children with a woman who did not look like his vision, he always kept the face of his true love close to his heart. In 1930, after he’d left his wife and kids,...

Behind the beady eyes and nighttime “ribbit” lurks a fascinating creature. Frogs and toads hop a weird line in life. They take buffalo taxis and use dating websites. Throughout human history, froggy feet have also left memorable prints, having inspired everything from famous novels to some of the earliest pregnancy kits. Centuries of studies could not plumb the depths of these amphibians’ limits. They still manage to surprise scientists with their ability to survive bizarre injuries and mutations. 10 Visible Hearts The Hyalinobatrachium genus of frogs has transparent bellies. The unusual look soon earned the tiny amphibians the title of “glass frogs.” Found in Central and South America, the see-through skin of two species extends over the chest and show their hearts. In 2017, a third glass frog was found to beat its heart openly at the world. Called H. yaku, it was a bit odd. A visible heart is already a weird thing to find in nature, but H. yaku also looked different than other glass frogs. All other species take some thinking and perhaps a magnifying glass to tell them apart. H. yaku turned up in Ecuador’s trees sporting unique green spots and distinctive songs. They also had bright green to yellow-green skin. Interestingly, DNA tests showed that this frog was not closely related to the other two species with visible hearts.[1] 9 Thousands Are Smuggled Frog legs are considered a French delicacy. Several other European countries also consume the amphibian limbs. To meet the demand, the animals are imported from other places like Turkey. The latter ships a massive number of frogs to Europe but also tightly regulates the trade. To ensure that the frogs are not exploited, only certain people may collect them. Hunters must be in possession of the right license and can only collect certain species at specific times of the year. This is simply too much red tape for poachers, who often gather the creatures en masse before selling them to overseas buyers.[2] In 2017, Turkish authorities caught five men attempting to do just that. When their minibus was stopped for a routine search, agents found about 7,500 common water frogs. The poachers confessed, and the kidnapped amphibians were released back into the wild. 8 The Match.com Frog In Bolivia, one can visit the Museo de Historia Natural Alcide d’Orbigny. Inside this long-worded institute lives Romeo. This frog spends his days paddling around an enclosure and resting in the shadows. By species, he is a Sehuencas water frog, and by heart, very lonely. After 10 years of croaking as romantically as he could, Romeo gave up in 2017. What his human caretakers already feared finally sank in—that he was the last-known frog of his kind. Even as Romeo’s calls fell silent, scientists continued their search for a mate. In a creative move, they put Romeo’s profile on the online dating site Match.com. It raised enough funds to send researchers to the Bolivian cloud forest. In the past, it was full of Sehuencas water frogs. However, the usual suspects had decimated them—pollution, habitat destruction, and the deadly chytrid fungal infection.[3] The 2019 expedition found five Sehuencas. Only two were female, but one was the perfect age for Romeo. Should the couple find no romance, their two-legged Cupids will try in vitro fertilization. 7 They Have Kneecaps Frogs have been dissected and studied for centuries. Yet, one fact managed to elude scientists until 2017. As it turns out, the little hoppers have kneecaps. Weird ones, too. It all began with the discovery of sesamoids. These bony structures are embedded in tendons over joints, essentially making them kneecaps. They turned up in species thought to have none, which inspired an Argentinian team to try their luck with frogs. Incredibly, they found something. A close look at 20 frog species revealed a primitive cap, not yet a sesamoid. It was more of a cartilage blob, soft and small. So tiny, in fact, that it was hard to see under a microscope. Rather than protect the joints from a blow, the squishy pads might exist to alleviate the constant stress that frog knees are under.[4] Although the primitive structures are not kneecaps in the modern sense, they suggest that the earliest caps did not evolve with the first tetrapods that crawled onto land. Instead, they came with amphibians. 6 Test Frogs Made Chytrid Global To date, the chytrid fungus has caused 200 amphibian species to become endangered or extinct. How it spread across the world was unclear, but recently, a candidate hopped to the fore—the African clawed frog. During the 1930s, doctors injected urine samples into females. If the pee came from a pregnant woman, a pregnancy hormone (human chorionic gonadotropin) made the frog ovulate. By the following morning, the tank would be full of eggs. Since the method was successful and repeatable, the frogs were in high demand and shipped around the world. The pregnancy stick women use today became available in 1988. The frogs were no longer needed, and many were released into the wild. The global spread of the species made it a good candidate for the devastating fungus, but confirmation came in 2006 when clawed frogs in California were found to have chytrid. Most were healthy, a strong clue that the species is the original carrier of the disease.[5] 5 Frog With No Lungs Around 30 years ago, scientists encountered a frog so rare that only two specimens were known. Due to the rarity, dissection was not an option. Had it been done, however, something exceptional would have come to light. The creatures, Barbourula kalimantanensis, had no lungs. In 2008, researchers went to Borneo to find some more. Unfortunately, the tiny amphibians loved remote jungle areas and, worse, rivers that were rapid and freezing. One diver developed hypothermia. But despite the hiccup, several frogs were found. Nobody had any idea of the bizarre anatomy until they cut a few open. The stomach, spleen, and liver occupied the space normally reserved for lungs. There was...

Our genes do more than just determine our characteristics. They also influence other unbelievable things like our lifestyles, spending habits, eating preferences, and smelly armpits. That sounds weird, but it’s true. This is the result of the way that evolution works. People with the most favorable genes survive, while people with unfavorable genes die off. Nevertheless, our genes seem to have given us the perfect excuse for some unruly behaviors. 10 Fats And Sugar We will have a hard time stopping obesity because our so-called “thrifty genes” are wired to make us eat more fatty and sugary foods. When humans were hunter-gatherers thousands of years ago, eating three square meals wasn’t assured. Most people did not even know when they would get their next meal—if they ever managed to do so. Humans soon realized that fatty and sugary foods provided them with energy that lasted over longer periods. This is because fat contains more calories than other classes of food. It is also less weighty on the body, meaning we expend less energy to store fats. Sugar provides long-lasting energy because it is easily converted to fat. Early humans with thrifty genes survived because they were the likeliest to survive foodless days and famines. Most people without the genes died off. However, a minority of them survived and their genes are still around. But for the rest of us, our ancestors had thrifty genes and so do we. Little wonder that most humans have a sweet tooth.[1] 9 Spending And Investment Researchers Stephan Siegel and Henrik Cronqvist have discovered that our genes determine our spending, saving, and investment habits. During an analysis of the genes and lifestyle habits of 15,000 sets of twins, the researchers found that twins had similar spending habits even when they did not live together. According to Siegel and Cronqvist, our parents and experiences often determine our spending and saving habits until around age 25. By age 40, our genes have kicked in and influence how we spend and save. The researchers discovered that our genes affect how willing we are to take risks in business as well as how we invest in equities. Apparently, the study’s authors believe that a genetic component contributed to whether these twins diversified their stock portfolios enough. If you invest in only a few stocks at any one time—and they’re losers—that could spell financial disaster. But it can also be lucrative if you pick the right ones. Nevertheless, many financial advisers recommend diversifying your portfolio among many types of stocks or other investments to reduce your risk of loss. According to the researchers, our genes also make us likelier to invest in stocks that were previously successful. However, prior success is not a guarantee that a stock will continue to be a good holding. Other researchers like Hersh Shefrin have concluded that our genes also make some of us thrifty spenders. Only 25 percent of people have the gene that makes them spend less. The rest of us have genes that make us spend more.[2] 8 Fear Of Snakes And Spiders Humans have an innate fear of crawling creatures, especially snakes and spiders. Even babies are wary of these creatures. In two studies, several six-month-old babies appeared stressed when they were shown images of snakes and spiders. They did not show the same reaction when they looked at pictures of fish and flowers. In another study by Joshua New and Tamsin German of Columbia University, 252 people were quick to spot the spider when shown several images. This happened even when the pictures were distorted. We have an innate fear of crawling creatures because snakes and spiders often killed early humans. Although many spiders are harmless today, most were highly venomous and could kill with a single bite millions of years ago. Spiders that did not kill could make a person sick or paralyzed. This is obviously bad when you’re in a jungle filled with thousands of animals that are actively trying to eat you. Humans soon had genes to easily detect snakes and spiders. The people who lacked those genes died off because they were often bitten. However, other researchers like Jon May of Plymouth University disagree that we detest spiders due to our genes. He says that we hate spiders because their hairy legs and weird movements make them scary.[3] 7 Sleep The average human needs about seven hours of sleep a night. Anything below six hours usually causes fatigue, which quickly leads to other problems. Fatigued people are physically and mentally weaker and unable to concentrate or think properly. They may also become depressed. However, there is a distinct group of individuals who only need a few hours of sleep a night. They have p. Tyr362HIS, which is called the “Thatcher gene.” This is named after former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher who was known for sleeping only a few hours a night. Researchers discovered the relationship between the p. Tyr362HIS gene and sleep during a study involving 100 sets of twins. They found that participants with the gene had perfect brain power even though they did not get enough sleep. Meanwhile, participants without the gene had weaker brain power because they lacked enough sleep.[4] 6 Shopping “Shopping” is synonymous with “women.” But according to Geoffrey Miller of University College London, men are actually the ones who are genetically wired to shop. Men love shopping because they want women to think they are rich and attractive. Owning expensive items also means that a man is rich enough to take care of a woman. Thousands of years ago, long before clothing lines and fashion stores became a thing, men wore animal skins and painted their bodies to attract women. As technology came along, men hopped to clothes, cars, and other status symbols, including expensive dinners. Today, most men stop taking their women to dinners and buying flowers and other luxuries after having sex with the women. At that point, the man no longer needs to show off because...

It’s a question that has grabbed the attention of humanity since long before history has been recorded. What life exists outside of this little ball that we call Earth? Whether we’re talking about the gods of Olympus or the Klingons of Star Trek, it is a theme that has appeared consistently throughout all of human history. As science expands our knowledge of the universe every year, we half expect the news that extraterrestrial life has been found. But what if we’ve been looking in all the wrong places? Science predicts many examples of counterintuitive forms of life. While impossible on Earth, they could very well exist elsewhere in the universe. So, without further ado, here are the top 10 scientifically possible extraterrestrial life-forms. 10 Silicon-Based Life Silicon is a molecule whose structure and chemical properties are remarkably similar to the properties of carbon—the element on which most life on Earth is based. An important part of life as we know it is the ability of carbon to form complex chains of atoms and molecules sufficiently large to contain biological programming such as DNA. Silicon, also commonly used in computer chips, is the closest that humanity has ever come to designing their own intelligent system. It would have the potential to organically form its own version of DNA under the right circumstances. Additionally, there are examples on Earth of organisms using silicon in biological structures, specifically in a form of algae known as diatoms. They are responsible for the usage of over six billion metric tons of silicon each year in Earth’s oceans as well as the production of almost 20 percent of the planet’s oxygen.[1] As a result, it is likely that silicon might exist as a stage of early life on other planets, converting their atmospheres into oxygen and getting them ready for more advanced life later on. 9 Arsenic-Based Life Although it seems counterintuitive that one of the most iconic poisons on Earth has a basis in forming life, science suggests that it is entirely possible for arsenic to be incorporated into complex biomolecules. The argument for arsenic in life-forms stems from its chemical similarity to phosphorous, a staple part of DNA in Earth life. Some studies suggest that arsenic may have once been a part of the DNA in early life on Earth, taking the place in DNA that phosphorous does now. In an early stage of life before microbial activity was able to leech phosphorous from rocks in the ocean, arsenic would have been far more available to organisms living near hydrothermal vents deep in the ocean.[2] Although evidence suggests that phosphorous is a more efficient chemical than arsenic in advanced life, the poisonous element would likely be good enough for early, simple forms of life. Creatures made of this substance may lurk in the depths of alien oceans. 8 Ammonia-Based Life Water is an essential part of all Earth life. Our bodies use the liquid as a solvent, which is necessary for almost all chemical reactions that create energy and sustain functions. This is seen in humans and all the way down to the smallest microbes. But what if there was an alternative to water? Recent science suggests that there is. For life to exist in a substance other than water, it would be necessary for it to either have a large temperature range at which it is liquid or exist on a planet with little, if any, temperature change over the course of its year. Water exists in a liquid form between 0 degrees Celsius (32 °F) and 100 degrees Celsius (212 °F), a range of 100 degrees Celsius (180 °F). Ammonia is liquid between -77.7 degrees Celsius (-107.86 °F) and -33.3 degrees Celsius (-27.94 °F), a relatively large range of 44.4 degrees Celsius (79.92 °F). While one might think that such temperatures would be too cold to sustain life, it is likely that the reactions and processes necessary for life could still exist, albeit at a slower speed.[3] As such, organisms using ammonia rather than water as a chemical solvent would likely live longer but metabolize and evolve more slowly than water-based life. 7 Methane-Based Life There are some environments in which methane would be far more prevalent than water. Saturn’s moon Titan is a prominent example. According to a computer model, life which relies on methane would be able to exist in extremely cold areas as well as regions entirely without oxygen. The model revealed that a cell wall could be constructed that would work in liquid methane at -180 degrees Celsius (-292 °F). Along with the fact that cell membranes could be created with nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen molecules, which are known to exist in Titan’s oceans, this function means that simple organisms could exist in the frozen depths of methane oceans.[4] As with ammonia-based organisms, life in methane oceans would inherently be paced much slower than life on Earth. Slow evolution and metabolism would occur due to the frigid temperatures necessary to maintain the ocean of liquids. 6 Carbon-Based Life Carbon-based life-forms are the only type which we, being carbon-based ourselves, know anything about. Thus, we’re sure that hundreds of planets exist within the potentially habitable zones of their stars. These planets would be able to support life as we know it with oxygen, liquid water, and even the chemicals and reactions necessary to jump-start life. Additionally, carbon-based life is the only type that we are sure exists, as evidenced by our own planet. This isn’t to say that carbon-based life on other planets would look at all like Earth’s. Through evolution, it is possible for extraterrestrial carbon-based life to take on a dramatically different form by adapting to fit its environment. Just look at the massive number of life-forms that exist on Earth. They live everywhere from frigid oceans to the mouths of active volcanoes and fault lines. The existence of organisms on Earth in such extreme environments is proof that it is entirely possible for this kind of...

Most people have wondered what happens after death, and there is no shortage of questions about what, if anything, follows the cessation of bodily function. Is there an afterlife? Will Elvis be there? Will my pets find me? If the following list is anything to go by, you can be sure that you will meet little Nemo, Doggo, or Kitty again! Hopefully, they won’t be scary like the black dog of Newgate Prison or run around in circles like the chicken ghost of Pond Square. Whatever happens in the Great Hereafter, pray you don’t meet any of these devilish creatures . . . 10 The Ghost BearThe Tower Of London The ghost of a bear is said to haunt the Martin Tower at the Tower of London, where the Crown Jewels were once held. One night in 1816, a guard on duty saw a huge bear and lunged at it with his bayonet. At the time, the Tower had its own menagerie that was later moved to the London Zoo and Regent’s Park in the 1830s. He could have thought one of the great bears being held in the menagerie had escaped! The bayonet went through the bear and was plunged so deep into the wood of the door behind that it took two men to remove it. The apparition faded away after the guard attacked it. The guard fainted from shock and died two days later.[1] 9 The Phantom Horse Of Bryn-Y-MaenNorth Wales A white horse haunts the back roads of the town of Bryn-y-maen in North Wales. It was seen on two separate occasions by different people, first by a man driving the back roads to avoid being stopped by the police, as his car wasn’t taxed. Dawn had broken, and he was driving toward a dip in the road. Suddenly, a huge white horse came over the hedge, and he thought it would crash through the bonnet of his car: “It filled the windscreen!”[2] The car spun as he slammed on the brakes, but as he did, the horse vanished. On the second occasion, a young couple were driving the same road and approaching the dip. Again, the white horse came over the hedge but disappeared as they hit the brakes. A possible explanation, or at least a clue, that has been offered is an account of a large horse skull being found when the road was being repaired, but no one has been able to corroborate this. 8 The Chicken Ghost Of Pond SquareLondon One extremely cold day in 1626, Sir Francis Bacon was passing Pond Square in his carriage with a friend. Bacon was arguing his new idea of preserving food, whereby instead of salting meat, it might be possible to keep it so cold that it did not deteriorate. His friend, the king’s physician, didn’t agree, but nevertheless, Bacon obtained a chicken at a local Highgate farm, plucked and cleaned it, and packed it with snow, inside and out. Unfortunately for Bacon, his foray into the cold turned into a bout of pneumonia, which finished him off. Soon after his death, news of a half-plucked chicken running around at Pond Square was reported. The chicken would allegedly vanish when anyone tried to approach it, and sightings continued throughout the years. For example, in World War II, wardens tried to capture it, but it ran through a wall to escape. Around the same time, a passerby heard what sounded like a coach and horses, but nothing was there to be seen except for a chicken running around in circles. It was also seen in the 1970s by a couple stealing a goodnight kiss in a nearby doorway.[3] 7 The Merrivale PigsDartmoor A phantom sow and her piglets have been haunting Merripit Hill for 200 years, as the legend goes.[4] On misty nights when walking the roads, you might stumble across them making their way to Cator Gate, starving and searching for food. As legend has it, the sow and piglets knew that if they traveled to Cator Gate, they would find a dead horse to eat, but upon their arrival, the horse had already been picked clean by crows. The pigs are said to speak, too! The piglets cry out, “Skin an’ bones, skin an’ bones!” to which the sow replies, “Let ‘un lie, let ‘un lie.” Back they go, then, over the moor searching for food, only appearing once more when the night is foggy and dark. 6 The White Rabbit Of Thetford Warren LodgeNorfolk Thetford Warren Lodge was built on the Brecks, an ancient and wild landscape in Norfolk where prehistoric farmers once kept sheep and rabbits. The lodge was built in the 1400s by nearby monks in Cluniac priory as a residence for the warrener, the man in charge of maintaining and catching rabbits on the Brecks for food and their skins. The Brecks are filled with small rabbit burrows. One enormous white rabbit with glowing red eyes is said to haunt the lodge and is an omen of death to whoever is unlucky enough to see it.[5] Perhaps it has something to do with the old leper hospital of St Margaret close by, which was raided for silver and burned to the ground in 1304. 5 The Black Dog Of Newgate PrisonLondon Newgate Prison once stood by the Old Bailey and was home to a supernatural hound that was an omen of bad luck.[6] A prison inmate first wrote about the hound in 1596 and recounted that during a terrible famine in London, the prison inmates had turned to cannibalism to stay alive. A scholar was imprisoned at this time, having been accused of witchcraft, and no sooner had he arrived than he was overpowered by the stronger men and eaten. Shortly afterward, the inmates began seeing a large, black dog roaming the dark corridors, and one by one, each man who had eaten the scholar was hunted down and torn apart by the beast. When the number had dwindled to only a handful...

Inside the world of extinct animals is a special club—species with dangerous looks. To get a meal or avoid becoming one, both predator and prey refined physical traits to interesting effect. From fangs in whales to herbivores with a taste for meat and carnivores unlike anything seen today, ancient animals were survival specialists. Recent fossils also revealed unknown predators that terrified the prehistoric landscape and solved the mystery of a unique, if not gruesome, shark. 10 Whales That Ate Whales Egypt’s Wadi Al-Hitan (“Valley of the Whales”) is littered with the bones of extinct whales. In 2010, researchers stumbled upon a skeleton sticking through the sand. It was identified as Basilosaurus isis. This customer grew 15–18 meters (50–60 ft) long and lived 34 million to 38 million years ago. Although it was a whale, B. isis did not snack on krill or plankton like its modern relatives. The creature was a ferocious predator that preyed on other whales. This specimen, in particular, provided the first clear evidence. Inside the stomach curled the remains of a calf. The latter belonged to a smaller whale called Dorudon atrox, a species that matured at 5 meters (16 ft) long. Crush marks on the calf’s skull matched the adult whale’s teeth, proving it was a kill and not a dead body the larger animal had scavenged.[1] Once again, the dental side of this ancient whale was far removed from any modern species. B. isis had fangs like a wolf and sharp teeth in the back of its mouth. 9 Largest Early Jurassic Predator Near the Italian village of Saltrio, a quarry produced a special dinosaur in 1996. Years of dynamite blasts inside the quarry did the fossil no favors. In the end, 130 pieces were recovered. Saltriovenator zanellai took nearly 20 years to put together and identify as a new species. Weighing about a ton, it was the Early Jurassic’s largest-known predator. Although not the biggest carnivorous dinosaur that ever lived, Saltriovenator was nevertheless formidable. It prowled on two legs and grew serrated teeth and deadly claws. The time it lived—around 198 million years ago—was significant because this predated the existence of large meat eaters by a cool 25 million years. The beast, which grew to 7.6 meters (25 ft) long, died as a juvenile. When it was 24 years old, the hunter somehow ended up on the seabed. The scars left by scavengers also made the fossil unique. Never before had any dinosaur remains been found that had been nibbled on by at least three distinct marine creatures—ancient sharks, urchins, and sea worms.[2] 8 Meat-Eating Herbivores Pachycephalosaurus often appears in children’s dinosaur books. Illustrations show the dome-headed dinosaurs knocking their heads together in battle or grazing on plants. These animals were classified as vegetarians even though only partial jaws were found. Strangely, they were always the back part of the jaw, but they had classic herbivore teeth. Pachycephalosaurus undoubtedly enjoyed mashing fruit and rough plants. In 2018 in Albuquerque, researchers gathered in confusion around the most complete skull ever found. For the first time, the juvenile contained a complete front jaw. It sported very different teeth. Serrated and sharp, the pointy blades reminded experts of carnivore teeth, especially those of T. rex. Notably, Pachycephalosaurus lived during the same time (66 million to 68 million years ago). Further research might change their classification to opportunistic hunter and omnivore, but the discovery could also solve an enduring mystery. Very often, rocks from this period produce the teeth of small carnivores nobody can find. Pachycephalosaurus might very well be the source.[3] 7 The Oldest Tyrannosaur In 2012, an expedition uncovered bone fragments in New Mexico. Found in the Menefee Formation, the skeleton was badly weathered. For this reason, restoration dragged on for years. Once completed, the creature turned out to be an 80-million-year-old type of tyrannosaur. It was a remarkable find. The new dinosaur predated the other 25 species of tyrannosaurs by millions of years. Dynamoterror dynastes was unusually large for such an early version of the lineage. It eventually became clear that the 9-meter-long (30 ft) carnivore belonged to the same subgroup that included large relatives such as T. rex, which lived around 15 million years later. Dynamoterror is special for another reason. North America’s dinosaur evolution experienced a strange split around this time. A sea divided the continent, causing the same types of dinosaur to develop differently in the north and south. The new tyrannosaur’s differences from those of similar age could reveal more about these unusual evolutionary pockets.[4] 6 Madagascar’s Super Crocodile When a species is missing its early history, paleontologists call it a “ghost lineage.” The notosuchians are one such group. In 2017, a discovery not only suggested that they originated from southern Gondwana (the original supercontinent) but also presented a new notosuchian member. Found in Madagascar, Razanandrongobe sakalavae resembled a crocodile. The head alone was 1 meter (3.3 ft) long. It had an unfriendly grin. Each tooth measured 15 centimeters (6 in) in length. In fact, they rather resembled those of T. rex, making the croc thing an apex predator of its time. Researchers puzzled the species together using the new find and pieces rediscovered in museums. The combined data showed that R. sakalavae was perhaps the biggest notosuchian and definitely the oldest. It chased dinosaurs for dinner around 163 million years ago, a date that beat the previous oldest notosuchian by a mind-bending 42 million years.[5] 5 Destroyer Of Shins When a dinosaur died 76 million years ago, it was destined to be named after a monster in the Ghostbusters movie (1984). The fictional Zuul was a hellhound with a face like a gargoyle. In 2014, the fossil reemerged in Montana. It was a previously unknown ankylosaurid—a dinosaur resembling an armored tank with a distinctive tail used like a club. The fossil was so well-preserved that its looks garnered the movie-inspired name Zuul crurivastator. When it perished, Zuul was buried in river sand. This preserved even the soft tissue covering...

When a state has newspaper headlines that read, “Avoid reptiles as a holiday gift,” then you know there’s a problem. Florida has a reputation as the number-one state in the US for invasive species. Over the past decade or so, more than 260 exotic animals (that we know of) have escaped their cages and fled into the Florida wilderness. We’re not only talking about lions and tigers and bears (oh my) but also rhinos, jaguars, wolves, orangutans, and just about any exotic creature you can imagine. Many of these escaped convicts remain at large.[1] However, this list is concerned with the species that, as exotic pets set free in the wild, were able to stick around and multiply. As the wise Jeff Goldblum predicted in Jurassic Park, life will always find a way . . . Many of us dream of having an exotic pet, like Frida Kahlo with her monkeys or Tippi Hedren’s pet lion. Well, in Florida, you don’t need any special license or certificate to own many types of exotic pets. At the University of Florida, researchers confirm that the pet trade is the main reason for the introduction of invasive species. Exotic animals often begin as innocent pets but are released or escape into the Florida wilderness, for one reason or another, where they can wreak some serious havoc. Kenneth Krysko, manager of the Florida Museum of Natural History, says, “It’s like some mad scientist has thrown these species together from all around the world and said, ‘hey, let’s put them all together and see what happens.’ ” He warns that if the trends continue, Florida may have more invasive species than native. A wildlife ecology professor at the University of Florida likened the situation to “a slow-burning fuse lit to an ecological bomb.” Meanwhile, the exotic pet industry in the US makes $15 billion annually, and people continue to buy that flashy, unique pet that sounds alluring but is severely dangerous to both them and society at large. 10 Burmese Python The largest Burmese python discovered in the Florida wild was 5.4 meters (18 ft) long and weighed 58 kilograms (128 lb). The man who found it in the brush, being a run-of-the-mill Floridian, grabbed it by the neck and held it up to his friends to see how big it was. The python quickly wrapped its muscled body twice around the man’s legs and then reached his waist. The man’s quick-thinking friend handed him a 23-centimeter (9 in) blade, which the soon-to-be victim used to decapitate the python.[2] Now, it is illegal to buy a Burmese python in Florida and for good reason. People used to buy these tiny snakes, which would grow to be about 1.8 meters (6 ft) long in a year’s time. That’s either too much work or slightly horrifying, so the owners would release their beloved pets into the Everglades. This happened enough that the pythons started to breed and thrive in the wet, subtropical climate. In no time, the snakes, who can produce up to 100 hatchlings at once, became the apex predator in the region. There was a glimmer of hope that native alligators would be able to control the rapid rise of Burmese pythons, but instead, the gators are actually being eaten themselves. In one famous case in 2005, a python tried to consume a 1.8-meter (6 ft) alligator whole, but the snake exploded in the attempt. These battles are becoming a common occurrence. Since the pythons have mostly killed all of the marsh rabbits, bobcats, and other small mammals, the Everglades now call upon hunters to eliminate as many pythons as they possibly can. The hunters are paid minimum wage by the state, plus $50 for every 1.2-meter (4 ft) snake and $25 for each additional foot. In about a year’s time, hunters have bagged 1,000 pythons. 9 Rhesus Macaque [embedded content]Most people don’t know that you can ride an inner tube down the Silver River in Ocala, Florida, and likely see wild monkeys swinging from the trees as you float by. In the 1930s, the owner of a privately owned park had the harebrained idea to release an entire colony of rhesus macaques as a tourist attraction. The park staff, being the clever humans that they were, put the monkeys on an island in the Silver River for safekeeping. Surprise! They can swim. Now there are hundreds that are spreading like wildfire through Central Florida. These feral troublemakers travel in large gangs, and they can be aggressive when they feel threatened. They have been terrorizing people in their own backyards, but that’s not even the worst part.[3] Recently, it was discovered that these macaques carry a herpes virus that spreads to humans through excrement and other bodily fluids. Having feces flung at you from a primate is horrifying enough without the fear of contracting herpes, thank you very much. On that note, above is a hilarious video of the rhesus macaques chasing down a terrified family. Enjoy. 8 Green Iguana Iguanas are Florida’s most invasive species. This green menace creates mayhem in suburbia, from leaving gifts in swimming pools and gobbling up gardens to disrupting electrical grids and causing power outages. People discard iguanas as pets because they are more work than expected, as they grow up to 1.8 meters (6 ft) long and require a ton of food. During mating season, they become increasingly hostile and lash out at their owners by biting them. On top of that, they may just try to escape through the doggie door. Sadly, Floridians have resorted to combating this pest problem they created by using blunt-force trauma. In other words, people are paid to sneak up on them in the dead of night while they sleep and bash in their skulls. Jenny Ketterlin, a wildlife biologist who works for this $63,000 project commissioned by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, ensures the public that swiftly smashing their brains open is actually the most humane way to kill them.[4] Well, it’s good...

Fish tanks are tranquil until scientists want answers and drunk people want some fun. Then the fish stories start to get interesting . . . and more than a little weird. Beyond the laboratory and fish-related emergency room visits, some of the best tales come from public aquariums. From lifesaving firsts to the mysterious case of a shark abandoned at a worm farm, no fishbowl will ever look the same again. 10 Infectious Fish Pedicures A trendy way to exfoliate feet is to get a fish pedicure. Clients soak their feet in a container full of tiny fish that consume dead skin cells. In 2018, a woman in New York allowed the fish, called Garra rufa, to feast on her toes. Months later, her toenails fractured. The bottom layer could be seen underneath the top. Since it was painless, she did not visit a doctor for six months. Ultimately, she was diagnosed with onychomadesis. This condition occurs when something stops nails from growing and, eventually, they fall off. When all other causes of onychomadesis were ruled out (injury or a family history of nail disease), the woman became the first case linked to a fish pedicure.[1] In the past, Garra fish had tested positive for several bacteria that cause skin and tissue infections. Hygiene is another problem. Since the fish are in the tubs, the containers cannot be properly cleaned between customers. Sanitary risks include individuals with foot diseases who use the tub before other clients. 9 Oldest Fish In Captivity In 2018, an Australian lungfish in San Francisco celebrated her 80th year at the California Academy of Sciences’ Steinhart Aquarium. Her age is closer to 90 as she arrived as an adult in 1938. Named Methuselah, she measures 1.2 meters (4 ft) long. The oldest fish in captivity loves figs and prawns, belly rubs, and certain volunteers. Methuselah also prefers her own tank. When caretakers placed her in a larger aquarium with two younger lungfish, she insisted on hovering upside down until they moved her back. Genetics play a role in her long life, but the species is extraordinary in other ways. Lungfish, which are primitive and go back 400 million years, use a swim bladder to float and breathe air. Some even walk over the ground to search for a new pond. Methuselah seems happy to aim for a century. According to her caretakers, she eats like a pig and loves human interaction. For this reason, the aquarium’s coddled group of lungfish are often called “underwater puppies.”[2] 8 Fish Have Personalities Scientists tackled a tricky question in 2015. Wondering if fish had personalities, they decided to create a horror show. They scared guppies with a fake heron beak plunging into the water. On another occasion, they used “Big Al.” He was a carnivorous fish called a cichlid which would suddenly appear on the other side of the glass. When a guppy was moved to this scare tank, the only shelter was a small plastic cover. After getting the holy sin frightened out of it, the single fish would be returned to a well-protected tank full of other guppies. After three days, it went back to the scare tank to endure five minutes of terror. This continued for a month. After putting each of the 105 guppies through this experiment, scientists concluded that the fish had personalities. All reacted in a unique way. It was not accidental. The guppies repeated their chosen behaviors (hiding, fleeing, freezing) during the follow-up encounters with the heron and cichlid every three days.[3] 7 Catfish Drinking Game In 2016, a drunk man arrived in the emergency room with a bizarre injury. That evening, the unnamed 28-year-old had partied with friends in Rotterdam in the Netherlands. They had decided it would be a good idea to swallow live fish. Several goldfish were taken from a home aquarium and gulped down without a problem. Then someone suggested another tank occupant—a small catfish. However, it was a Corydoras aeneus, a toxic creature with spines. When threatened, these catfish stiffen their venom-filled needles to avoid getting eaten. Needless to say, the spiky creature got stuck in the man’s throat. Choking, he threw up blood and beer—but no fish. His drunk friends applied the Heimlich maneuver incorrectly. The man tried to wash the fish down with beer, ice cream, and honey. Finally, after waiting several hours, he went to the hospital.[4] Delicate surgery ultimately removed the dead catfish. It was preserved in the Rotterdam Natural History Museum, joining a collection that highlights dramatic encounters between humans and animals. 6 Wrasse Recognize Themselves There is a simple test for self-awareness. A mirror shows the subject an artificial mark on their body. Any related reaction, like rubbing the spot, suggests an awareness that the image represents their real body. Animals that have passed include dolphins, chimpanzees, elephants, pigeons, and crows. In 2018, researchers wanted a self-aware fish. They picked the cleaner wrasse. One ability made them the perfect candidate. Wrasse feed on parasites. They have evolved to notice unusual spots on other fish. When 10 wrasse were isolated in individual mirrored tanks, things got interesting. At first, they mistook their reflections for rivals and fought with themselves. However, within days, they performed “friendly dancing” in front of the mirrors.[5] Wrasse are solitary and do not dance for other fish. Although hard to prove, they could have been dancing to see themselves move. When colored gel was applied to their heads (only noticeable in the mirror), seven wrasse spent more time with their reflections or rubbing their heads against things in the tank. 5 Fish Floaties Leafy sea dragons resemble seahorses that ate too much plant fertilizer. The entire fish is covered with leaflike fronds. In 2018, the Florida Aquarium in Tampa acquired three young sea dragons. While observing the Australian fish, the aquarium’s vet noticed something distressing. They ate badly and kept sinking to the bottom of the tank. Leafy sea dragons float for a reason—to look like seaweed and not food. For them to...

Dinosaurs terrorized Earth’s lesser creatures for nearly 200 million years. But many details of their daily lives are lost to history forever—or at least until a reliable time machine is built. Don’t let that bum you out, though, because scientists are really good at gleaning loads of information from the most seemingly inconsequential remains. From ulcers to foreplay, these scenes of dinosaurian daily life probably won’t be in the next Jurassic Park. 10 They Suffered From Parasites And Ulcers [embedded content] Fossilized poo nuggets (aka coprolites) reveal surprisingly valuable information. The ancient feces show that the ruthless reptiles suffered the same affliction as your cat: parasites. Fecal remains from a fossilized Iguanodon graveyard in Belgium were loaded with cyst-causing Entamoeba organisms as well as trematode and nematode worm eggs, parasites that remained mostly unchanged in the intervening 125 million years.[1] Not even the tyrant king T. rex was immune from tiny invaders. Researchers have on occasion found holes in Tyrannosaurus jaws, which they attribute to protozoans, little single-celled parasites that cause ulcers and lesions in the mouth and throat. 9 Some Land Dinosaurs Swam After Prey If the carnivores weren’t terrifying enough, there’s evidence that some of them could even swim after their prey. One such scene is immortalized on a river bottom in Szechuan Province. It’s left behind by a theropod, a three-toed predator a la T. rex but smaller. It swam for about 15 meters (50 ft), scratching a series of claw marks in pursuit of quarry that jumped into the water. Each mark shows the impression of three parallel claws. And not in a haphazard cat-in-the-bathtub way, but in a “coordinated, left-right, left-right progression.”[2] So not only were theropods assassins on land, but they could traverse water capably as well. It’s possible that swimming was an innate behavior for some dinos, as it is for dogs. 8 Nonflying Birdlike Dinosaurs Ate Flying Birdlike Birds Researchers found two Sinocalliopteryx so fortuitously preserved that their last meals were still visible. Sinocalliopteryx was related to Compsognathus, the ankle-biting “Compy” of Jurassic Park and Dino Crisis fame. Only Sinocalliopteryx was larger, up to 2.4 meters (8 ft) long, and covered in a light feathery fuzz. It wasn’t flight-worthy, but it did prey on creatures that were. In one dinosaur’s stomach, researchers discovered Sinornithosaurus remains from a cat-sized, feathered theropod that could fly short distances. The other Sinocalliopteryx contained two crow-sized primitive flyers called Confuciusornis.[3] The avian meals may have been scavenged, but they’re in similar states of digestion. So it’s likelier that Sinocalliopteryx was a skilled killer who terrorized early birds of the Cretaceous about 125 million years ago. 7 Sauropods Had Special Claws For Digging Nests The lumbering long-necked sauropods had a weird arrangement of claws that were unlike other animals. When their feet were flexed, the claws lined up along the front like scrapers. Sauropod footprints disprove the better grip hypothesis because the claws weren’t “engaged.” Instead, sauropods might have used their scrapers to excavate trench-like nests in which they safeguarded their eggs. Sauropods were also potentially good dancers. Researchers analyzed some more footprints in Morocco and recreated the dinosaur tracks. They found that the prints occasionally faced sideways and sometimes almost backward. Before evolution made them ultra-gigantic, the daintier sauropods could rotate their forefeet for better agility depending on walking speed and center of mass.[4] 6 Hadrosaurs Communicated Via Built-In Megaphones Hadrosaurs are the duck-billed dinosaurs, members of the mostly herbivorous, ornithischian (bird-hipped) clade. Nature’s conveyor belt pumped out hadrosaurs in crested and uncrested varieties, with the lambeosaurs sporting crests on their heads. It wasn’t just for show. The crests’ tube-filled interior acted as a resonating chamber. It amplified hadrosaur vocalizations, which could have coordinated herding efforts, warned off predators, and/or wooed potential lovers. Some hadrosaurs, like Edmontosaurus regalis of around 73 million years ago, had a jiggly rooster’s comblike thingy on its noggin. Although it didn’t make noise, it probably signaled reproductive health or age or identified different species for mating purposes.[5] 5 Some Made A Career Out Of Egg Snatching Oviraptorosaurs (egg thieves) are feathered, beaked, birdlike dinosaurs that include the famous raptors. Most are horrible, but the newest member of the family not so much. The endearing Gobiraptor minutus prowled Mongolia’s Gobi Desert around 70 million years ago when the landscape was less a desert and more wetland, crisscrossed by rivers and busy with life. Unlike many other theropods, G. minutus secured its niche with a uniquely omnivorous diet. Its robust beak and strong jaws allowed it to take advantage of all sorts of overlooked food groups. Instead of tearing the flesh from its enemies and friends, it subsisted on small, crunchy dinosaur bar snacks, such as mollusks, seeds, and eggs.[6] 4 Triceratops Horns Weren’t (Primarily) For Fighting The Triceratops and its horned ceratopsian kin didn’t earn their menacing horns and fancy frills for protection but for sex appeal. Researchers argue that the trademark horns and ornate armor serve mainly to differentiate between species and to add sex appeal. They seem like implements of war or thermal regulation but could instead be an evolutionarily efficient way to avoid shacking up with the wrong species.[7] Triceratop-esses didn’t waste their time on genetic scrubs. So a set of mighty frills and horns instantly displayed a male’s hereditary health, as tail feathers do for peacocks. 3 Dinosaurs Engaged In Birdlike Foreplay Not much is known about dinosaur sex, but in at least one way it resembled bird sex. The revelation comes from a bunch of ancient ruts clawed into a hunk of 100-million-year-old limestone. The “scrape-like dinosaur tracks” are bathtub-deep, more than 1.8 meters (6 ft) across, and curiously end in a claw mark. These 50 or so ruts, which appeared in pairs, confused researchers. Then they remembered that modern birds leave similar markings as a prelude to mating. To captivate females, males swagger about and scratch the ground to exhibit their nest-building skill. If these ruts are truly the result of “pseudo-nest-building” foreplay, they’re the first evidence...

There is a very thin line—one that’s easy to cross and even easier to blur in the field of medicine—where ethical experimentation and the malicious pursuit of knowledge through unethical means meet and perhaps even overlap. What is ethical science in the world of human subjects, and who’s to be the judge of that? Is consent all that’s really needed for an experiment to be considered humane, and if so, how much consent? How many of the details does a patient need to know to reach the threshold of doctors safely saying that consent was, in fact, informed consent? Throughout history, this line has been crossed many times, much to the tragic dismay, torture, and even death of some of the so-called patients who’ve been experimented on. There have been great breakthroughs in medical science through experimentation on living human beings, but at what cost? Sometimes, tests were conducted upon individuals without their knowledge that they were the subjects of an experiment. Here are 10 such cases that led to medical breakthroughs. 10 Influenza1941 Nobody likes getting the flu. It comes along when we least expect it, infecting us and making us sick for days or even weeks, sometimes leaving us bedridden for extended periods of time. But imagine getting the flu unsuspectingly and then finding out that someone had administered it to you. Well, that’s exactly what happened in the United States from 1941 onward in the name of experimentation. Thomas Francis Jr., the microbiologist who originally isolated the viruses known as influenza A and B, conducted some of these experiments in 1941 on institutionalized persons, including children. Many of the experiments were conducted using people who’d become property of the state or were otherwise in mental asylums. Francis didn’t tell them that he was spraying his recently isolated flu virus up their noses when he gave them a nasal spray. Even more terrifying, when the medical community found out about it, they seemed to think that the ends justified the means. The dominant ideology of the day was that it was perfectly okay to subject unwitting people to diseases and medical mistreatment as long as the research led to breakthroughs.[1] These tests paved the way for a greater understanding of influenza as a series of viruses and led to vaccines, many of which protected US troops during World War II. 9 Gynecology Gynecology is a science that has a history replete with unethical tests and especially surgeries on subjects. What a nightmarish thought it is to be strapped or forced down while someone performs a surgery on you without your consent as you struggle to break free. James Marion Sims was a surgeon and scientist who’s often credited as being “the father of modern gynecology.” The ways he came to his conclusions in medicine were rather striking. His experiments took place in the 1840s in the United States when slavery was still legal. They were conducted without anesthesia almost exclusively on enslaved women who hadn’t given consent. Extremely painful surgeries were performed on helpless women who couldn’t legally say no. Through these methods, Sims invented all sorts of dilators which opened the vagina, especially to treat vaginal fistulas, abscesses, or openings that connect one organ to another unnaturally. He forced his various instruments on unwitting women in the name of science and sadly paved the way for a lot of gynecological work as we know it today. If anything, these faceless women who suffered at the hands of medical experimentation should be called “the mothers of modern gynecology” rather than giving James Marion Sims a similar title.[2] 8 Spinal Taps Back in 1896, we didn’t quite yet know whether spinal taps would be harmful procedures with short-term or long-term effects. Thus, some tests needed to be done. In one of the most twisted cases of medical experimentation, a doctor by the name of Arthur Wentworth stepped up to the plate. He performed spinal taps on 29 children to test the safety of the procedure. Obviously, these children could not consent, and some argued that the kids weren’t even sick. Even for that time, people were outraged that a doctor was using children to test the safety of a new surgical procedure. Even worse, it was immediately alleged that Wentworth didn’t even gather consent from the parents, who also didn’t know that their children would be used to study the effectiveness of spinal taps. But it’s certain that Wentworth was instrumental in pioneering many modern surgical procedures, such as the lumbar puncture which is still used today.[3] His supporters at the time claimed that the ends justified the means, while his opponents were mortified. 7 San Quentin San Quentin is a prison in Northern California near San Francisco. It became the place that would facilitate one of the worst cases of experimentation on living, non-consenting subjects in history. These nightmarish tests were conducted by Leo Stanley, who served as the chief medical surgeon for the prison from 1913 to 1951. Stanley brought about some medical advancements in an extremely unorthodox way. In fact, he taught us exactly what not to do. During his tenure, Stanley was obsessed with the genitals of men. He fixated on Hitler-like eugenics, hated homosexuality, thought that white Christians were the superior race, and thus advocated the active sterilization of the rest. In some of the most evil experiments in world history, Stanley took the testicles from deceased prisoners and grafted them into living ones. Even more disturbing, Stanley sometimes transplanted animal testicles into living people.[4] His experiments affected countless men over decades and were his search for a more “vital” man through regulating testosterone production. This was the forerunner to modern hormone therapy before they got the chemistry figured out. Ultimately, Stanley advanced the field of medicine by giving an undeniable example of the need for more oversight in the medical facilities within prison walls. For the longest time, many people like Leo Stanley were able to operate unhindered as long as they conducted...

Stars made almost all the matter we enjoy today, so you could say they’re important. Either by exploding in nuclear hellfire or by smashing into each other, various stellar bodies created the elements that make the Internet—and the people who invented the Internet—possible. Stars do all sorts of crazy things. Like belch massive clouds of gas, outshine entire galaxies in a second, eat their companions to regain life, and bend the laws of physics in other awe-inspiring ways. 10 A Star Belches Before It Explodes [embedded content] Supernovae usually fade after weeks or months, but fast-evolving luminous transients (FELTs) “flash in the pan [and] then disappear” in a few days. Like the 1.3-billion-light-year-distant KSN2015K which went off 2.2 days before reaching peak brightness and then faded away after three weeks. This is just one-tenth as long as would be expected from a type Ia supernova, whose newly gained radioactivity gives it a brilliant glow. But a year before KSN2015K’s kaboom, it released a puff of gas, or stellar belch. When it finally exploded, its ejected star guts slammed into the spreading burp cloud and lit up the sky with a quick but magnificent flash.[1] 9 A Magnetar Releases A Slow Gamma-Ray Burst In the early 1990s, astronomers spotted a stupendously bright radio source that rivaled the strongest in the universe. The mysterious signal then faded over the next 23 years. It was the first discovery of an “orphan” gamma-ray burst (GRB), or the afterglow of the baddest explosions in the cosmos. Regular GRBs last about a minute and are thought to occur as neutron stars or black holes collide or as stars collapse into black holes. But this long-duration event shows that a GRB can also happen at the other end of the time spectrum.[2] It originated from a chaotic star-birthing (and deathing) region 284 million light-years away that was full of energetic bursts and deadly magnetars. It’s one of these magnetars, the corpse of a star 40 times more massive than the Sun, that likely caused the GRB. 8 A Neutron Star Spins 716 Times A Second About 28,000 light-years away in the constellation Sagittarius resides a globular cluster called Terzan. Hidden inside is a neutron star that spins 716 times per second. In other words, this thing that’s approaching the mass of two Suns, all squashed down into a ball 32 kilometers (20 mi) across, is spinning twice as fast as your blender.[3] The 716-hertz neutron star, PSR J1748-2446ad, is at its size limit. If it were any larger, its insane spin would fling pieces of itself into its own orbit. 7 A White Dwarf Revives Itself By Eating Its Friend X-rays can be soft or hard. Soft ones require several-hundred-thousand-degree gas, but hard ones come from cosmic furnaces that achieve tens of millions of degrees.[4] Now there are weird supersoft X-rays coming from a white dwarf. Fusion was one possible explanation, but ASASSN-16oh isn’t fusing anything. Instead, the X-rays are probably produced by the impact shock of matter as the white dwarf siphons material from its partner star. It will continue to gorge on its sibling until it overeats and supernovas both stars to death. 6 A Neutron Star Scorches Its Companion Neutron stars can only become so massive, but astronomers have recently discovered a body that pushes these specs. The former most massive neutron star, PSR J0348+0432, weighed 2.01 solar masses. The new PSR, PSR J2215+5135, is a millisecond pulsar—an ultra-magnetic, rapidly spinning neutron star.[5] And it has a cute little companion star of only 0.33 solar masses. They’re so close that they swing around each other in just 4.14 hours as big brother PSR blasts its tiny buddy with intense radiation that leaves one side in constant shade and the other glowing with radioactivity. 5 A Star Births Its Partner Researchers found a disk around star MM 1a. They looked inside and found not planets but a whole baby star, MM 1b. By analyzing the frequency of light from the disk and measuring the radiation, astronomers ascertained that MM 1a is an impressive 40 solar masses while fledgling MM 1b is a measly half a solar mass.[6] That’s some discrepancy. It probably occurred because the gas-and-dust disk was too massive and its beastly gravity tore it into fragments. But the big MM 1a is so beefy that it ensures a short life span for the entire system because massive stars live short lives before exploding magnificently in supernovae. 4 Stars With Brilliant Comet-Like Tails Comets streak across the sky, and some stars do the same thing on a larger scale. Like the giant, ultrahot stars in Westerlund 1, a 12,000-light-year-distant stellar cluster inside the Milky Way. Comets earn their tails when they’re hit by the solar wind, the stream of charged particles blasting from the Sun. So they always stretch away from the Sun. Star tails behave similarly. But they stretch away from the center of the cluster as they’re pulled like cotton candy by intense radiation from the many supremely brilliant adolescent stars.[7] 3 Stars That Pulse Mysteriously Blue Large-Amplitude Pulsators (BLAPs) are odd stars that don’t behave like their friends. Instead, these BLAPs are smaller than their blue-ness would suggest. Crazier still, they rapidly dim and then brighten. A gravitational lens survey has picked out about 12 BLAPs from a litter of about a billion observed stars, and they’re unlike anything else. As they pulsate, they vary in brightness by up to 45 percent and do it all on time spans of 20 to 40 minutes. That’s the equivalent of the Sun freezing and then boiling us, all during a standard-length TV show. Scientists aren’t sure how BLAPs work, but they may be a weird type of merged binary star. Alternatively, they could have been much puffier blue stars that somehow lost their outer layers.[8] 2 A Dead Star Gets A Halo Neutron stars blast out X-ray and radio emissions, so those are the wavelengths that researchers observe. But a weird new neutron...

Scientists are at it again. This time, they are creating new viruses and bacteria in their laboratories. Scientists usually prefer altering already-existing or extinct bacteria and viruses to produce new strains that will defeat our immunity, vaccines, and drugs. Sometimes, they prefer creating new viruses and bacteria from scratch. However, these strains are not always dangerous to humans even though they could be deadly to animals like mice and even to other bacteria. 10 Horsepox Scientists at the University of Alberta have created horsepox, a lethal virus closely related to the equally deadly smallpox. Unlike smallpox, horsepox does not affect humans and is only fatal to horses. The scientists created the virus during a six-month study sponsored by pharmaceutical company Tonix. The researchers purchased DNA pieces via mail order and arranged them to form the virus. The entire project was not expensive. The DNA pieces used to create the virus cost just $100,000. The study caused a dilemma at the time it was revealed. Other scientists were concerned that governments or even terrorists could use the knowledge to create smallpox virus for biological weapons. A smallpox epidemic could become deadly for us today. We no longer get vaccinated for it because we eradicated the disease in 1980. The researchers clarified that they created the virus because they wanted to develop improved smallpox vaccines. Tonix later revealed that it had produced a smallpox vaccine with the horsepox virus. Other scientists say that the researchers could have extracted horsepox from wild horse populations instead of creating it from scratch. Tonix said they would have done just that if they had known they had natural access to the virus. However, lead researcher David Evans said they recreated the virus because Tonix would have been unable to commercialize the horsepox virus taken from the wild.[1] 9 Black Death Photo credit: BBC Between 1347 and 1351, millions of Europeans were afflicted with a mysterious disease that killed over 50 million people. Today, we know this disease is the Black Death, which is caused by the Yersinia pestis bacteria. Although the Black Death is still around, it is not as potent as it used to be. A few years ago, researchers from several schools, including the University of Tubingen in Germany and McMaster University in Canada, recreated the deadly bacteria from DNA samples extracted from the teeth of a victim who died during the plague. They got only 30 milligrams of the bacteria from the teeth, but that was enough to recreate it. As a result, researchers confirmed the original bacteria’s relationship to the Black Death around today. Some scientists had claimed that the bacteria were of different strains, but they are now confirmed to be the same. The one we have around today only became less deadly after it mutated.[2] 8 Polio Like their counterparts at the University of Alberta, scientists at the State University of New York have created a deadly artificial virus by buying DNA pieces via mail order. This time, it is polio—and it is as potent as the natural one. Mice exposed to the artificial polio got sick just as they would have if exposed to natural polio. The laboratory-created polio was controversial among scientists. The researchers who produced it had taken its code from databases available to almost anybody. Other researchers fear that people with ulterior motives could develop their own artificial polio, which is much easier to make than other dangerous viruses like smallpox. Smallpox’s genetic code is 185,000 letters long while polio’s is just 7,741 letters long. Although we are already at the brink of eradicating polio, scientists fear that we will still need to be vaccinated against the disease because it could be recreated.[3] 7 Mousepox A few years ago, researchers at the Australian National University and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) produced a deadly mutated strain of mousepox by mistake. Mousepox is another lethal virus that belongs to the same family as horsepox and smallpox. The researchers were trying to develop birth control for mice at the time that they mistakenly created the virus. They inserted a gene that promoted the creation of interleukin 4 (IL-4) into mousepox, which they injected into some mice. The mice were vaccinated and were not supposed to be harmed by the mousepox. Instead of making the mice infertile as researchers had expected, the weakened virus turned lethal and destroyed the immune systems of the mice, killing them in nine days. The new mousepox was so dangerous that it was resistant to vaccination. Half of the other vaccinated mice exposed to the mutated mousepox also died. The researchers were so scared by their invention that they did not want to publish their findings. They even met with the Australian military to confirm if it was safe to publish.[4] Scientists fear that human smallpox could also mutate and become deadlier if injected with IL-4. However, they are unsure because no one has tried it yet. We know it’s only a matter of time before some scientist does. 6 SARS 2.0 Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a lethal virus. More than 700 people were killed during a SARS epidemic that infected 8,000 people in 29 countries between 2002 and 2003. Now, scientists have made it deadlier. The new mutant SARS virus was created by a group of researchers led by Dr. Ralph Baric of the University of North Carolina. They call it SARS 2.0. The researchers developed the virus by adding some protein to the naturally occurring SARS. SARS 2.0 is immune to vaccines and treatments used to cure the naturally occurring SARS virus.[5] The team said that the research was necessary because the natural SARS virus could mutate and become immune to our vaccines. By creating a deadlier and mutated virus, we could develop stronger vaccines that will save us from a more lethal SARS epidemic—that is, if the natural SARS ever mutates. However, other scientists are concerned because the SARS 2.0 that is supposed to save us...

You’ve probably heard of many different kinds of allergies that plague people internationally. More than 50 million people suffer from them in the United States alone.[1] From tree nut to shellfish allergies, these afflictions can become incredibly dangerous if not handled with care. It’s more than likely someone in your family or friend group has had to see an allergy doctor. Usually, they’re made to carry about an Epi-Pen, or the more recent Auvi-Q, just in case of a severe allergic reaction. The worst allergic reactions can send people into anaphylactic shock, involving shortness of breath, vomiting, fainting, low blood pressure, and even the possibility of death. Yet, there are still many allergies that are not among the ones you always hear about—ones that seem so random that it makes you wonder where they came from. Maybe you personally have dealt with one of these or know someone with one. While food allergies tend to be more common, a lot of these uncommon ones are known as physical urticarias, which is a fancy way of saying the allergen causes itchy, red hives and rashes on the skin. Physical urticarias tend to have to do with physical stimulants—heat, cold, exercise, and many others. Beyond that, there are other allergies to everyday objects that seem like they’d impede one’s ability to live normally. This is a list of ten of those allergies—ones you never even thought could exist. 10 Cold Urticaria Commonly known as an allergy to the cold, this affliction causes those allergic to it to break out in hives due to temperature drops. For some, all it takes is diving into a freezing-cold pool to set them off into anaphylaxis. This allergy can become quite dangerous really quickly. Cold exposure leads to the development of itchy rashes and hives.[2] The reactions to the cold can vary, from very minor hives-based reactions to full-on fainting and shock. Swelling of the tongue or throat is also possible in this allergy. Usually, this allergy occurs more often in young adults and can be the result of an underlying health condition. It also can be genetic, so multiple people in the same family might have it. Despite this, it still can be treated with over-the-counter allergy medication. 9 Dermographism A reaction which only affects around four percent of the population is dermographism, which can be seen as being allergic to touch. That sounds wild, but you’ve probably seen the effects of this one before if you’re active on the Internet. It allows those afflicted to pretty much write words on their skin with their fingernail and have them stay visible. The word “dermographism” essentially means “skin writing.”[3] In reality, it’s a rash that appears due to touch and that eventually will go away within a half-hour. Dermographism can also be controlled with antihistamines, which can help deal with the irritation of the hives. 8 Solar Urticaria Another physical urticaria, this allergy causes people to develop hives when exposed to natural sunlight.[4] This definitely would be tough for summer people, as it’d make going out in the sun quite difficult. A reaction can also develop from an artificial light source that’s emitting UV rays. This affliction is very rare as a whole but does seem to start most commonly in one’s mid-thirties. Mostly, people with this issue can avoid allergic reactions by using sun protection strategies or by taking antihistamines. The goal should be to minimize sun exposure and prevent rashes from appearing. In addition, patients can sometimes undergo phototherapy or photochemotherapy, which can help them become used to sun exposure, especially if their allergy is really severe and makes life extremely difficult. 7 Exercise Allergy Exercising is hard enough without having to worry about going into anaphylaxis. Unfortunately, some people can have severe allergic reactions simply from exercising too much. In these situations, they can go into anaphylaxis after going to the gym or partaking in other types of physical activity. Interestingly enough, there are different factors that can play into this reaction, including food, medications, and weather conditions. Sometimes, eating certain foods before going out to exercise can lead to anaphylaxis, which is known as food-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis.[5] This condition can come on unexpectedly and can become so severe as to be lethal. Even so, it’s still possible to treat it with epinephrine. 6 Aquagenic Urticaria Some people wonder if water’s wet, while others question whether water allergies are a legitimate thing. There’s still no solid answer to the first question, but it’s been shown that water allergies are real. Scientifically known as aquagenic urticaria, this allergy can cause a hives reaction when someone afflicted goes into water.[6] This sounds unbelievable, since we are constantly surrounded and mainly made up of water. Doctors still aren’t sure how exactly this allergy came about, but similar to the other physical urticarias, it can be treated with antihistamines. 5 Cockroach Allergy Cockroaches are gross enough without also being allergens. For an unfortunate few, however, being allergic to them is a real thing to deal with. Usually, it leads to asthmatic symptoms due to the proteins that come off the cockroaches’ bodies.[7] A way to deal with such an allergy is by keeping one’s home clean and getting rid of any dead cockroaches because even they can cause an allergic reaction. Surprisingly, people who are allergic to shellfish can sometimes also be allergic to cockroaches, as they give off a similar protein. People with a cockroach allergy can even find themselves with hives simply from touching a place where a cockroach walked or pooped. On the upside, it gives people with this allergy even more reason to avoid cockroaches at all costs. 4 Artificial Nail Allergy Artificial nails are quite popular and trendy. They look cute and come in all different shapes, sizes, and colors. Getting your nails done is something fun to do, but for some people, it can lead to complications. For some, the adhesives cause swelling, redness, and pain at the nail beds.[8] The...

People from the 19th and early 20th centuries were fascinating, to say the least. Inspired by the Industrial Revolution and groundbreaking scientific discoveries, the average householder developed an interest in inventions, “improving” their lives by using cutting-edge (untested) science and technology in every aspect of their social and domestic lives. Unfortunately, their enthusiasm often ran away with them, and their disregard for health and safety often led to disaster. Here, we look at some of the ways the average person from the Victorian era through the early 20th century may have killed himself while enjoying the benefits of scientific and technological progress. 10 Going To The Bathroom Visiting the bathroom shouldn’t be a dangerous undertaking. However, the Victorians had a number of perils to contend with. First was the water heater, which was gas-powered and often exploded, possibly because of the candles and oil lamps which were often used by residents who were caught short in the night.[1] And then there were the toilets themselves. Prior to the Great Stink of 1858, when London was practically uninhabitable due to the hot weather and sewage smells, toilets with the s-bend design that we know today were rare. Toilets dropped their contents straight into the sewers below, and the smells from sewer rose through the unimpeded pipes and, shall we say, lingered. And the sewers didn’t only contain eliminations but other sorts of human waste, too. The cemeteries of the period were not well-regulated, and human remains frequently contaminated drinking water or flowed directly into the sewers. And decomposing matter produces methane and carbon dioxide. Methane, particularly when combined with a flame from a candle or water heater, causes explosions. Straight up through the toilet. In order to control the methane problem, a number of sewer gas lamps were installed. In a surprisingly green fashion, engineers attempted to power the city’s streetlights using methane gas in order to reduce the dangerous buildups. The lamps were only partially successful, but the widespread introduction of s-bend toilets after the Great Stink made using the facilities a little safer. 9 Eating A Sandwich A lot of foodstuffs in Victorian England were made with contaminated ingredients. One report in 1877 showed that ten percent of butter, eight percent of bread, and 50 percent of gin had copper added to it, while red lead was added to cheese to give it a “healthy” color. Other adulterants included strychnine in beer, copper in pickles and jams, lead in mustard, iron in tea, and mercury in chocolate.[2] Bread, however, was a particular problem. Very few poor people at that time had the facilities to bake their own bread and therefore bought their daily loaves from street vendors. Bread was cheap, so it was a staple food for many, and almost the only food for some. However, the majority of this bread was adulterated with alum. Though it was not poisonous in itself, alum acted to prevent the absorption of nutrients in food. The alum bulked out the bread, making loaves appear larger for their weight and thus more attractive to poor families with many mouths to feed. Those who survived the sandwich fillings would have developed rickets or other diseases because of their inability to absorb nutrients efficiently. 8 Walking Down The Stairs Though anyone can fall downstairs, the Victorians were more vulnerable than most to severe injury and even death. There were very few building regulations at that time and none at all when it came to the construction of modest homes. Stairs were very narrow, often with several steep turns, which made navigation tricky. Also, the builders did not have a standard measurement when constructing their staircases, so steps within a single staircase were often of different height and width. Not only that, but no one thought it necessary to install a handrail. Some staircases were nothing more than glorified ladders, up which women were expected to climb while wearing long dresses, often while toting a child or two on their hip. Unsurprisingly, deaths from falling down stairs were common.[3] 7 Playing Billiards Snooker and billiards were once considered games for gentlemen only. The balls were made from ivory and were therefore very expensive. However, when celluloid was developed as an ivory replacement, the possibility of billiards for the masses seemed a very real one. There was a big disadvantage of using celluloid over ivory, though: It was volatile and flammable—very flammable, in fact. That was unfortunate, because one billiard ball striking against another was sometimes enough to cause an explosion. Players complained that the noise sounded like a gun going off.[4] Which is enough to put you off your shot. 6 Wearing Makeup Usually, when you tell a woman that they have a certain glow about them, it is a compliment. For the Radium Girls, however, it was more a sign of impending death. During the early 20th century, radium was considered to be something of a miracle element. Cosmetics manufacturers claimed (without any evidence) that small amounts of radium were beneficial to health. Customers were sold face creams and soaps laced with radium that were guaranteed to make their skin glow. Other manufacturers added radium to energy tablets, butter, and even chocolate. Radium was also added to paint, which was used to decorate clock faces with luminous dials. And during the 1910s and 1920s, women who painted them were told to lick their brushes after dipping them in the radium-laced paint in order to point the end of the brush.[5] The radium was extremely dangerous, and those who were in regular contact with it often died painful deaths. The clock painters, known as the Radium Girls, suffered terribly. When the body of one was exhumed five years after her death, it was still said to be “glowing.” 5 Cleaning Out The Gutters The Victorians loved their scientific discoveries and inventions, but they weren’t always careful about testing them before they went into full-scale production. So when they discovered asbestos, a cheap, nonflammable material, they used...