Studying Molecular Biosciences

Example:

Trump: “Your thighs are fat.” Me: “Fuck you and your fucking wall.”

The current issue of antibiotic resistance is being referred to as a ‘perfect storm’, as research on the subject has declined while the amount and severity of multidrug resistance have increased. Antibiotics are an integral part of modern medicine and have safeguarded humans from bacterial diseases for decades. However, due to rapid reproduction rates and flexibility in receiving genetic material, bacteria have quickly evolved resistance to many of the available antibiotics. In the past decade, efforts have been made to slow the development of resistant strains of bacteria.

The creation of drug-resistant bacterial strains is sometimes quite simple. In order to illustrate the process, let’s look at a scenario. Within a colony of bacteria, only a few cells actually possess the gene or trait for resistance. If a person develops a bacterial infection, it is usually treated by antibiotics. When the bacterial infection is treated by antibiotics, the cells that possess resistance to the antibiotic will not be eliminated. Then, those bacteria reproduce rapidly and pass the resistant trait to their offspring. However, this, referred to as vertical gene transfer, is only one process by which resistance can be conferred.

The issue gets a bit more complicated when horizontal gene transfer mechanisms like bacterial conjugation, transformation, and transduction make it possible for bacteria to receive genes from many different sources. Bacterial conjugation facilitates the transfer of genetic material between two bacteria through direct contact. The bacteria are linked and the donor bacterium passes genetic material in the form of a plasmid, DNA that isn’t part of the organism’s chromosome(s). Bacterial transformation occurs when bacteria can incorporate genetic material from the environment or from outside sources into its own genetic code. Transduction adds a whole new group of organisms into the problem – viruses. When bacteriophages (viruses that replicate in bacteria) go from one bacterium to another, occasionally antibiotic resistance genes get taken along for the ride.

The number of bacteria in the world and the variety of mechanisms they use to grab new genetic material make it easy for antibiotic resistance to become a big issue for us. After a bacterial infection evolves resistance, the treatment options for the disease become very limited and expensive. In the case of resistant bacteria, doctors will administer stronger antibiotics, which are known as second or third generation, or a mix of antibiotics. However, in the case of multidrug-resistant bacteria, treatment is often ineffective, especially when the bacteria have evolved resistance to the strongest available antibiotics.

While research continues into developing better, stronger antibiotics, consumers can take several measures to help stop the effects of antibiotic resistance. When prescribed antibiotics, taking the full course of medicine enables the drug to function at its highest potential and will help eliminate the possibility of bacteria surviving the antibiotic.

References and further reading:

Costerton, J.W., Stewart, P.S., & Greenberg, E.P. (1999). Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections.Science, 284(5418): 1318-1322.

Fard, R.M.N., Barton, M.D., & Heuzenroeder, M.W. (2011). Bacteriophage-mediated transduction of antibiotic resistance in enterococci. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 52(6): 559-564.

Levy, S.B. (2002). Factors impacting on the problem of antibiotic resistance. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 49(1): 25-30.

Severini, C., & Menegon, M. (2015). Resistance to antimalarial drugs: an endless world war against Plasmodiumthat we risk losing. Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance, 3(2): 58-63.

Spellberg, B., Guidos, R., Gilbert, D., Bradley, J., Boucher, H.W., Scheld, W.M., Bartlett, J.G., & Edwards, J. (2008). The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 46(2): 155-164.

Wilkins, A.S. (1996). Antibiotic resistance: origins, evolution and spread. BioEssays, 18(10): 847-848.

By Akshata Y., Writer

Edited by James H., Editor

—

its called Shirabe Jisho

so open it up and its ur standard dictionary

Glycogen is a readily accessible form of glucose. It breaks down far more rapidly than eg fat

It’s a long chain of glucose molecules held by a-1,4-glycosidic bonds

Found in high concentrations in the cytoplasm of skeletal muscle cells and hepatocytes (liver cells)

Glycogenesis: formation of glycogen Glycogenolysis: breakdown

In the liver

glycogenesis occurs when glucose is in excess

glycogenolysis occurs when glucose is required

Hormonally

glycogenesis is stimulated by insulin (produced when blood glucose concentration is high)

glycogenlysis is stimulated by glucagen (produced when BG is low) and adrenaline (fight or flight response)

Glycogenesis

Step one:

Glucose is phosphorylated by hexokinase (in muscle) or glucokinase (in liver)

Hexokinase has a much higher affinity for glucose than glucokinase

Allowing tissues to make greater use of glucose before the liver

Glucokinase (unlike hexokinase) is not inhibited by glucose-6-phosphate (the product)

This lack of feedback inhbition allows the liver to continue synthesising glycogen even when glycogen concentration is high

Step two:

Isomerisation of glucose-6-phosphate to glucose-1-phosphate, catalysed by phosphoglucomutase

reactions where a phosphate is moved are catalyzed by mutase enzymes

Step three:

Addition of glucose-1-phosphate to UDP (uridine diphosphate), a carrier

reaction is between glucose-1-phosphate and UTP (uridine triphosphate)

hydrolysis of the last phosphate in UTP drives the reaction

catalysed by UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase 

Step four:

the activated glucose-UDP is added to the non-reducing carbon-4 end of a glycogen molecule, with the release of UDP

catalysed by glycogen synthase

which is the rate limiting (slowest) step

cells control production of glycogen by controlling this enzyme’s activity

Glycogenolysis

Step one:

Removal of a glucose residue from glycogen chain

catalysed by glycogen phosphorylase

phsphorylysis  reaction

Step two:

Isomerisation of glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate (backwards to above!!)

catalysed by the same enzyme - phosphoglucomutase

direction of reaction depends on the relative concentrations of -1 and -6

Step three:

Dephosphorylation of glucose-6-phosphate to form glucose

catalysed by glucose-6-phosphotase

only occurs in the liver

in muscle cells it’s not needed as glucose-6-phosphate is a glycolytic intermediate and can be used as is

She spent 40 bucks so he could get tested for the first time.

I spent an hour talking to this young boy about sex. I got to have the sex talk with him. I showed him how to properly use a condom and protect himself and his partners. We talked about STDs and pregnancy prevention. We even talked about pubic grooming and ways to avoid razor burn. This poor boy has never had someone talk to him about anything related to the changes his body is going through.

And then we spent 20 minutes talking about consent and how important it is.

Growing up I never, ever had someone talk to me about consent and its importance. I even had sex ED in school!

This shit is important ya’ll.

Second: zero babies have ever been murdered in a planned parenthood.

I didn’t say a god damn word about abortion but you had to get your fucking tighty whiteys in a bunch because an organization that you know nothing about is doing good things for millions of people and you hate it.

Abortion isn’t murder. Murder is illegal. Abortion is not illegal. IE abortion is not murder.

As i said (and we’ll go with what i said as not total bullshit because it’s obvious you have absolutely no real knowledge when it comes to sex or reproduction and i think we can thank your parents for that) this young man had a single mother that didn’t feel comfortable talking to him about sex. So i did it. I provided medically accurate and up to date information unlike so many parents today.

And by the way, planned parenthood isn’t some shadowy faceless organization.

For example, this is my face. The face i made while reading your stupid ass response.

2/100

I ordered a new pencil case and notebooks a while ago and I got those today! Cheered me up a bit. :)