#uw bothell

by Arda Alev

As populations of Southern Resident Killer Whales continue to decline in the North Eastern Pacific, effective plans for recovery and conservation become more important than ever. The population of SRKW’s is one of the most critically endangered marine mammal populations in the U.S. and Canada primarily due to anthropogenic factors, climate, temporal effects, and fluctuation in populations. Populations began to steadily increase since the 1970’s but started to decrease again in the 2000’s which prompted the two populations of SRKW’s in the Northwest to be added to the list of endangered species. In this case study I will explore the effects of Chinook Salmon populations on SRKW viability, the direct and indirect effects of anthropogenic causes on Chinook and SRKW’s, and the actions being taken to conserve and restore affected habitats and populations.

The Killer Whale species are very globally widespread and occupy different ecological niches as a result of their ecotype. The three ecotypes consist of mammal- eating “transients”, fish eating “residents”, and the offshore ecotype. The SRKW populations in the North Eastern Pacific fall into the category of fish-eating residents, and they generally occupy coastal habitats which result in a narrower niche than the other two ecotypes as they only eat fish. Above all else their almost exclusive consumption of the declining Chinook raises concerns for the longevity of the two SRKW populations that inhabit this region. (Ward, Eric J., et al. Holmes, Elizabeth E., et al Balcomb, Ken C. et al. 2009)

(Ward, Eric J., et al. Holmes, Elizabeth E., et al Balcomb, Ken C. et al. 2009)

One of the top concerns for SRKW’s is nutritional stress. With an average of 85 individuals in the Southern Resident populations over the past decade, extensive work has been done in putting together life-history data for Resident Killer Whales. The demographic data in this study for SRKW’s was acquired from long-term registries kept by the Center For Whale Research in Friday Harbor, Washington. To understand the intersection between whale populations and Chinook salmon abundance the study attempts to quantify the role of Chinook Salmon on whale population dynamics, and how killer whale population viability will respond to changes in Chinook Salmon mortality rates from being harvested.

The study quantifies the effect of chinook abundance on the rate of fecundity for the SRKW’s first by studying how the age of individuals affect rates of reproduction then using the trends in that data to account for the effects of age in the positive trend of probability of calving against percent change in Chinook abundance that they found. However, the study was not able to link temporal effects and climate change to having any effect on killer whale reproduction rates other than age and prey abundance.

(Ward, Eric J., et al. Holmes, Elizabeth E., et al Balcomb, Ken C. et al. 2009)

Another study tested two hypotheses on SKRW populations, the first of which postulates that there is a strong link between their population growth and the terminal run size of the Chinook Salmon runs; Fraser Early, Fraser Late, and Puget Sound Chinook stocks based on diet composition studies, and the second of which, which is argued to be weaker evidence as it assumes that Chinook salmon are important in the whales’ diet during late autumn through early spring, argues that there is a strong link between SRKW population growth and terminal run size of large freshwater stocks and ocean-type stocks that contribute to ocean fisheries. “The maximization of terminal runs via the cessation of ocean fishing on Puget Sound chinook salmon stocks (Scenario 2) or via the cessation of ocean fishing on the Fraser Early/Puget Sound aggregate (Scenario 3) produced marginal increases in SRKW population growth relative to status quo conditions.” (Vélez-Espino, L. Antonio 2014)

The data the reports surveyed proved a direct connection between Chinook Salmon abundance and SRKW population dynamics as Chinook Salmon stocks with the greatest value of elasticities in their vital rates against their spatial interaction with

killer whales showed to have the greatest positive influence on killer whale fecundity.

(Vélez-Espino, L. Antonio 2014) Many salmon die passing through dams which has contributed significantly to

Chinook mortality. As the salmon stocks of the Columbia River continue to decrease the time for reform becomes more urgent as the species many not be able to recover in time for the time of planned reform to implement more comprehensive dam passage survival. The proper increases in sustaining this population have not been met and will delay and or stand in the way of recovering and or conserving the population of this particular stock. (Mann, Charles C., et al. and Mark L. Plummer 2000)

Fecundity however is not solely connected to Chinook stocks. There are several direct and indirect anthropogenic factors that affect whale population dynamics and fecundity. Direct impacts include interaction with fisheries, proximity of emissions from the exhaust of marine engines affecting air quality, and noise and disturbance from marine vessels. Indirect impacts include the interference of dams on Chinook mortality and the various effects of climate change that are interconnected. Through determining the effects of the culmination of these stressors can we make educated attempts at conserving their habitats and restoring ecosystem functions.

Allometric scaling was used from humans to killer whales to determine the thresholds in which the health of whales would be adversely affected by the buildup of toxins from exposure to exhaust gases in one study. Their findings showed that whale watching guidelines were generally effective in keeping their pollutant exposure to levels that were at or below the thresholds in which adverse health effects were predicted to occur in SRKW’s. Two of the top three anthropogenic factors that have been identified

as a possible cause of decline for whales other than decline of Chinook, were identified as disturbance from marine vessels and the buildup of toxins such polychlorinated biphenyls also known as PCB’s.

Many studies have shown that human exposure to exhaust emissions can lead to adverse health effects as increases in mortality have been observed, which means that exhaust emissions have the potential to impact the air quality and health of SRKW’s. Because SRKW’s have greater particle retention than humans and are not as easily able to distinguish clean air from polluted air, monitoring air quality is vital. SRKW’s are rarely alone and usually have whale watching vessels keeping an eye on their populations. In order to alleviate this problem, the number of for leisure marine vessels attempting to view the marine life in this bioregion should be regulated to prevent bioaccumulation of toxins in whales and other marine life which will support local economies without sacrificing the viability of these whales.

Fisheries and Oceans Canada and the National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration developed Be Whale Wise guidelines to limit the disturbance of vessels and traffic. (Lachmuth, Cara L., et al. 2011) While the results of the impact of the toxins on the whale populations may not be immediate, the impact of this stressor may be seen over generations. Another study supports the negative effects on the health and social structure of whales through focusing on the tone and frequency of the calls of whales in the presence of marine vessels passing by. “We found a significant positive correlation between call source level and background noise level across all call types (p<0.001p<0.001, R2adj=0.25Radj2=0.25, n=274n=274). Since source levels and duration vary by call type (Ford, 1987; Miller, 2006) the subsequent analyses were

restricted to one call type (S1) with the largest sample size.” (Holt, Marla M., et al. 2009) In addition to whale watching at least 30% of whale watching vessels recently were noncommercial which would necessitate a more comprehensive plan for the conditions under which whale watching can sustainably occur. (Estimation of Southern Resident Killer Whale Exposure to Exhaust Emissions from Whale-Watching Vessels and Potential Adverse Health Effects and Toxicity Thresholds. (Estimation of Southern Resident Killer Whale Exposure to Exhaust Emissions from Whale-Watching Vessels and Potential Adverse Health Effects and Toxicity Thresholds. 2009)

Another anthropogenic factor that contributes to whale fecundity is the presence of fisheries. As observed in the Crozet population of killer whales on the East Coast of the United States depredating whales were seen to do better in numbers than non- depredating whales as they were able to have a better chance of survival from snatching the caught fish in a time of food scarcity and nutritional stress which proves a positive effect of artificial food provisioning as a point of reference for kickstarting killer whale fecundity in the North Eastern Pacific rather than a long term rehabilitation. (Tixier, Paul, et al. 2017)

While the studies have not shown any significant direct adverse effects of climate change on SRKW’s, one study found an observable trend in the change of habitat area location for Chinook populations. “Because anthropogenic climate change is predicted to substantially increase upper ocean temperatures globally in the 21st century a reasonable assumption is that future increases in sea surface temperatures (SST’s) will affect open ocean distributions of salmon.” (Abdul-Aziz, Omar I. 2011) This is particularly alarming as disturbances that cause changes in foraging patterns and

durations have the potential to affect fecundity if whales are more preoccupied with looking for food than reproducing.

The research also argues that more focus needs to be given to establishing protection of habitat in areas that the high sea distribution of Chinook end up in as there is too much focus on restoring freshwater stocks such as the Chinook in the Columbia River Basin. It calls for a better understanding of stock specific distribution on the high seas. As salmon habitats will gradually move farther up north they will lose their former habitats. (Abdul-Aziz, Omar I. 2011)

While mitigating climate change is the most far reaching method of conservation and restoration its scope is too broad and will not singlehandedly save their territories for the long term with quick reform.

Three areas were designated for recovery by NOAA in 2006 which included the Summer Core Area in Haro Strait and around the San Juan Islands, Puget Sound, and the Straight of Juan de Fuca. The plan for recovery of the Killer Whales can be broken into cleaning up pollution, improving the guidelines for marine vessels and studying their effect, preventing oil spills, responding to sick and or injured individuals, and community education and outreach about the regional issues at hand. In this article, many citizens were confused that salmon recovery was not included in the plan for whale recovery as it’s the main source of food for SRKW’s. In order to revive whale populations salmon recovery needs to be a priority for whale fecundity to increase, the lower the prey abundance the more time and energy the whales will need to spend to forage for food. (Peavey LPL. Comprehensive Conservation of Southern Resident Killer Whales in the Modern Ocean. 2016)

Being extremely social creatures, ensuring that their populations have the space and security to live and interact normally is my highest priority in conserving the whale populations in the North Eastern Pacific. The major stressors of vessel disturbance, oil spills, and food scarcity leaves reproduction to be a much lower priority which can become dangerous. I think that through regulating the duration and frequency of commercial vessels following killer whales and thereby cutting down on the PCB’s they consume, ceasing dam operations or decreasing the scale at which they function for Chinook vitality, and the restoration of old habitat will generously combat the certain decline in available resources due to climate change that will undoubtedly affect whale populations in the future at the current pace of legislation.

References:

Ward, Eric J., et al. Holmes, Elizabeth E., et al Balcomb, Ken C. et al. “Quantifying the

Effects of Prey Abundance on Killer Whale Reproduction.”

Journal of Applied Ecology,

Aquatic Conservation: Marine

vol. 46, no. 3, 2009, pp. 632–640., doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01647.x.

Talks about the relationship between Chinook decline and SRKW populations. The

article establishes criteria with which we can determine healthy levels of fecundity for

Orca populations by examining population diversity and density. It will help me craft my

argument as it explains a facet of Orca Whale decline.

Vélez-Espino, L. Antonio, et al. “Relative Importance of Chinook Salmon Abundance on

Resident Killer Whale Population Growth and Viability.”

and Freshwater Ecosystems

, vol. 25, no. 6, 2014, pp. 756–780., doi:10.1002/aqc.2494.

This is an important reference because it makes a note that Orca Whales will prefer

Chinook Salmon over other species even when there are higher numbers of the other

species. Determines nutritional stress to be one of the top factors contributing to the

endangerment of Orca Whale populations.

Lachmuth, Cara L., et al. “Estimation of Southern Resident Killer Whale Exposure to

Exhaust Emissions from Whale-Watching Vessels and Potential Adverse Health Effects

and Toxicity Thresholds.”

doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.01.002.

Holt, Marla M., et al. “Speaking up: Killer Whales (Orcinus Orca) Increase Their Call

Amplitude in Response to Vessel Noise.”

America

Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 62, no. 4, 2011, pp. 792–805.,

The Journal of the Acoustical Society of

Begins to touch on more directly anthropogenic causes of Orca Whale decline. Explains

the types of chemicals and their impact on Orca Whale populations from Whale

watching vessels. Shows how the decline of SRKW’s is a multifaceted issue and is a

culmination of many stressors.

, vol. 125, no. 1, 2009, doi:10.1121/1.3040028.

Vessel noise disturbance causes Killer Whale’s to speak more loudly to compensate for

the loud noises. An example that is almost invisible to us such as vessel noise

disturbance is shown to be a significant ordeal for Killer Whales and gives insight into

the endless ways in which anthropogenic causes can impact quality of life for marine

creatures.

Tixier, Paul, et al. “Demographic Consequences of Fisheries Interaction within a Killer

Whale (Orcinus Orca) Population.”

Marine Biology

, vol. 164, no. 8, 2017,

doi:10.1007/s00227-017-3195-9.

I will use this resource to provide an assessment of the impact of fisheries on Killer

Whales, even though they are not of the killer whale populations that my research is

concerned with I think it is a good source to pair with the impacts of killer whale

interaction with marine vessels. It will also help me postulate about opportunities for

conservation as this study shows a positive influence of artificial food provisioning as it

provides a possibility of reviving populations.

Abdul-Aziz, Omar I., et al. “Potential Climate Change Impacts on Thermal Habitats of

Pacific Salmon (Oncorhynchus Spp.) in the North Pacific Ocean and Adjacent

Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences

Mann, Charles C., and Mark L. Plummer. “Of Salmon and Dams.”

Seas.”

1660–1680., doi:10.1139/f2011-079.

, vol. 68, no. 9, 2011, pp.

This source elaborates on the territorial changes in salmon habitats due to climate

change as an indirect result of anthropogenic causes. Provides data for trajectory of

habitat area location and size.

Analyzes the impact of dams on different populations of salmon. It mainly focuses on

the Chinook Salmon that run through the Snake River. I will use this source to argue in

my point for opportunities for reform. One being to regulate and or shut down dam

operations.

National Marine Fisheries Service. 2008. Recovery Plan for Southern Resident Killer Whales (Orcinus orca). National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Region, Seattle, Washington.

Saturday Oct 1 & Sunday, Oct 2: UW Bothell's Fall Convergence is a full weekend of conversations, readings and panels on poetics on the theme of Form and Formation.  

The Form and Formation program was developed through collaboration with and support from the Bagley Wright Lecture Series on Poetry.

Performance by: Tracie Morris, Laynie Brown, Sarah Baker, Joshua Beckman, John Beer, Aeron Bergman, Anselm Berrigan, Richard Chiem, Allison Cobb, Brian Evenson, Lisa Fishman, Jeanne Heuving, Tyehimba Jess, Don Mee Choi, Joe Milutis, Robert Mittentha,l Aaron Shurin, Tree Swenson, Kaitlin Young, and Matthew Zapruder

UW Bothell Students to Reveal Award-Winning Internet of Things Projects to Microsoft and the Community

Two University of Washington Bothell teams won grants to develop Internet of Things (IoT) applications that could have local and global impact. The teams will present their projects to Microsoft and the community on Thursday April 14, from 4-6 p.m in Discovery Hall Room 464. 

The two interdisciplinary student teams received up to $25,000 each from a University-Microsoft partnership. The money…