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Aethelstan

Aethelstan was the first King of England, ruling from 927 to 939. The son of Edward the Elder (reign 899-924) and grandson of Alfred the Great (reign 871-899), he inherited the southern-based Kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons in 924 before capturing Viking York in 927 and establishing rule over northern England. He would do much to unite the various peoples of his kingdom, including the Mercians, West Saxons, Danes, and Northumbrians, under his rule by holding national councils, reforming laws, and encouraging unity through a common Christian faith.

His influence extended beyond England as he subdued the kings of Wales, Scotland, and Strathclyde and forged alliances with the rulers of France, Germany, and Norway. His greatest test came in 937 when an alliance of Scots, Celts, and Vikings attempted to conquer northern England. However, the defeat of the invaders at the Battle of Brunanburh marked a pivotal moment, the first great victory of the united English kingdom.

Much of what we know about Aethelstan comes from a contemporary set of annals, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which provides key but limited details, expanded upon by the 12th-century historian William of Malmesbury, who claimed to be working from a now lost ancient book on the king. As Aethelstan was a great patron of William's Malmesbury Abbey, William understandably admired the king, who, he believed, was "extremely beloved by his subjects from admiration of his fortitude and humility, he was terrible to those who rebelled against him, through his invincible courage." He also tells us the king was "of becoming stature, thin in person, his hair flaxen," which – according to William's own investigation into Aethelstan's coffin – was "beautifully wreathed with golden threads" (Sharpe, 134).

Youth

Aethelstan was born in 894 to Edward and his first wife, Ecgwynn. Edward, still a young man, was the heir to the southern Kingdom of Wessex, ruled by his father, Alfred the Great, who stoutly led the resistance against the Viking invaders, defeating them at the Battle of Edington in 878 after they had conquered northern and eastern England.

Alfred was particularly fond of his grandson. When Aethelstan was about five years old, Alfred held a public ceremony for the young prince, gifting him a scarlet cloak, a diamond-studded belt, and a sword with a golden scabbard, displaying the boy as a 'throne-worthy' prince. Aethelstan was then sent to the West Midlands to be fostered under the care of Alfred's daughter, Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians (reign 911-918), and her husband, Aethelred, Lord of the Mercians (reign 881-911), a loyal vassal of Wessex.

Later praised as the "best-educated ruler they had ever had," Aethelstan was taught to read and write in both English and Latin (Foot, 29). He also likely studied classical works of theology and philosophy, including Augustine of Hippo's Soliloquies and Boethius' The Consolation of Philosophy. Equally importantly, he was trained in riding, hunting, hawking, and Anglo-Saxon warfare.

When Edward became King of Wessex upon his father's death in 899, his first major decision was to set aside Aethelstan's mother, Ecgwynn, who was of minor political standing, in favour of a more prestigious consort, Aelfflaed of Wiltshire. His new bride was the daughter of Ealdorman Aethelhelm of Wiltshire (d. 897), a powerful lord who had been one of Alfred's leading military commanders. While the union enhanced Edward's position, it undermined Aethelstan's, as the son of Edward's second marriage, Aelfweard, would now boast a superior maternal lineage to his older half-brother. Aelfweard also grew up in Wessex beside his father, forming ties with the kingdom's power brokers, while Aethelstan was far away in Mercia.

Yet Aethelstan embarked on a perfect royal apprenticeship. Now led by Aethelflaed, following her husband's death in 911, the Mercians waged war on the Vikings of the East Midlands. As one of his aunt's chief lieutenants, Aethelstan led troops and built fortresses on her behalf, earning him renown and respect among the Mercians. When Aethelflaed died in 918, and Mercia passed to her brother, Edward, Aethelstan continued in this role and perhaps even acted as his father's deputy in Mercia, gaining experience in both politics and warfare.

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Seven Kings Must Die Film - Historical Accuracy

Seven Kings Must Die (2023) is a historical drama film based on Bernard Cornwell's novel Warlord (2020) and is a sequel to the TV series The Last Kingdom (2015-2022). Directed by Edward Bazalgette and produced by Carnival Films, it depicts the build-up to and the Battle of Brunanburh (937), in which King Aethelstan of England (reign 924-939) defeated an alliance of Scots and Vikings.

Background & The Last Kingdom

The film's protagonist is the fictional warrior and nobleman Uhtred of Bebbanburg (modern-day Bamburgh). In The Last Kingdom, Uhtred is captured/adopted by the Vikings as a boy, learning to love their customs and pagan faith, only to later find himself reluctantly serving Alfred the Great, King of Wessex and leader of the English resistance to Viking conquest. As Wessex's chief commander, he helps Alfred and his children defeat the Vikings and reconquer southern England. The series ends with Uhtred finally recapturing his northern home fortress of Bebbanburg, with the help of Alfred's son, Edward the Elder. Yet afterwards, he declares Bebbanburg independent from Wessex, which Edward sees as a great act of betrayal. This leaves The Last Kingdom concluding with England split into three. Southern England under Wessex; York, led by the Viking chieftain Rognaldr; and Bebbanburg, ruled by Uhtred.

During Edward's reign, Uhtred had been appointed as guardian to the king's eldest son, Aethelstan. Although Uhtred and Aethelstan would have a father-son relationship, this changes in Seven Kings Must Die. Returning south to inherit the West Saxon throne from his father, his expansionist ambitions put him at odds with Uhtred, as they both lay claim to northern England. While at the same time, Aethelstan's growing power irks the Vikings and his Celtic neighbours, who team up at the Battle of Brunanburh to halt his dominance over Britain.

The film has often been both praised and criticised for its historical accuracy and inaccuracies. How faithfully the film remained true to the real historical events and leaders of this period will be discussed below.

Warning: Spoiler Alert! If you have not seen the film yet, you may not want to read further.

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The Last Kingdom TV Series - Historical Accuracy

The Last Kingdom (2015-2022) is a historical fiction TV series based on Bernard Cornwell's The Saxon Stories novels and adapted for television by English screenwriter Stephen Butchard. With five seasons, the show began as a BBC production and was later acquired by Netflix. Filmed in Hungary and Wales, it is based on English history during the 9th and 10th centuries, as the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms fought against the invading Vikings.

The show follows the life of Uhtred of Bebbanburg (or Bamburgh, as it was actually called at the time), an English warrior and nobleman from Northumbria (northern England). As a young boy, his father is killed by the Vikings, and Uhtred is taken as their prisoner. A Viking family soon adopts him, and he learns to love their culture, customs, and pagan religion. However, when his new family is killed, and the Vikings mistakenly blame him, Uhtred is forced to seek refuge at the court of Alfred the Great (r. 871-899) in the Kingdom of Wessex (southern England).

As an Englishman and a 'heathen,' Alfred is suspicious of him, leading to a turbulent relationship between the two men. Yet Uhtred's knowledge of Viking warfare and culture makes him an invaluable military adviser and commander. In service of the House of Wessex, under Alfred and then his children, Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians (r. 911-918) and Edward the Elder (r. 899-924), he consistently defeats the Vikings, helping his masters build what would become the Kingdom of England, and earning the epithet "The Daneslayer."

The show has been simultaneously praised for its historical accuracy and criticised for inaccuracies. How faithfully the show represents the real historical events and leaders of this period will be discussed below.

Warning: Spoiler Alert - if you have not seen the show yet, you may not want to read further.

Uhtred of Bebbanburg

There were two real historical figures known as Uhtred of Bamburgh. The first Uhtred is a somewhat shadowy figure who was the brother of Ealdred, Ealdorman of Bamburgh (r. 913-933). All we know of him is that he is recorded alongside his brother fighting the Vikings at the Battle of Corbridge in 918, at a peace conference with the Vikings in the Midlands in 920, and attending King Aethelstan's court in the 930s.

The better-known Uhtred was the Ealdorman of Bamburgh from 1006 to 1016. Known as "Uhtred the Bold," he was the leading magnate in the north under Aethelred the Unready, King of England (r. 978-1016), and defeated the Scots at the Siege of Durham in 1006. However, at the time of the Danish conquest of England in 1016, Uhtred sided with the invading Cnut the Great but was soon killed on the orders of his new master.

While The Last Kingdom's Uhtred and Uhtred the Bold were both warlords from Bamburgh who served the House of Wessex during a period of conflict with the Vikings, they have little in common beyond these basic facts. The show's Uhtred, an English nobleman who converts to paganism and leads King Alfred's armies, is entirely fictional. However, certain aspects of his life in the show reflect elements of real history.

When Uhtred first enters Alfred's service in Season 1 Episode 3, he agrees to serve the king for only one year and to teach his soldiers how to fight the Vikings. In return, Alfred makes vague promises of rewards. Although the show does not use the term, we might regard Uhtred as a mercenary in this context. Such arrangements were consistent with practices during Alfred's reign. A contemporary biographer of the king, Bishop Asser, praised him for hiring men of all backgrounds and nations, including those who were "heathen" – like Uhtred (Cook, 22). Alfred also recruited mercenary sailors from Frisia to man his new ships and possibly to instruct his own warriors in naval warfare.

The Last Kingdom also shows how flexible the loyalties of leading nobles could be in England. After falling out with Alfred in Season 3 Episode 2, Uhtred considers forming an alliance with the Vikings against Wessex. Historically, similar attempts were made by West Saxon nobles associated with Alfred at least twice. The first involved Wulfhere, Ealdorman of Wiltshire, who sided with the Viking leader, Guthrum, when he invaded Wessex in 878. The second involved Prince Aethelwold (Alfred's nephew), who in 902 allied with the Vikings of East Anglia and York to challenge the succession of Alfred's son, Edward.

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The Fortress Kingdom: The Wars of Aethelflaed and Edward the Elder, 899–927

Paul Hill provides a detailed and well-researched reminder that England was not merely imagined into existence or won by a single epoch-defining battle. It was forged over several decades through the unglamorous and grim business of fortress building, slow methodical advances, and military cooperation between two very capable siblings.

When Alfred the Great – often presented as England’s founding father – died in 899, much of England was still under Viking rule. His kingdom was restricted to the southern realms of Wessex (south of the Thames) and western Mercia (West Midlands). Yet, by 927, his grandson, Aethelstan (reign 924-939), would claim sovereignty over all England. What happened in the intervening three decades to allow for such an expansion of power? This is the question Paul Hill tackles in The Fortress Kingdom: The Wars of Aethelflaed & Edward the Elder, 899-927.

Hill, formerly curator of Kingston-upon-Thames Museum, is the author of ten books on medieval warfare, including The Road to Hastings (2005) and The Wars of Alfred the Great (2022). His focus in this latest work is now on the achievements of Alfred’s children: his formidable daughter, Aethelflaed (870-918), and his all-conquering son, Edward the Elder (874-924).

Divided into five parts, The Fortress Kingdom begins with Alfred’s death in 899 and the emergence of Edward’s rule in Wessex and Aethelflaed’s in Mercia. It follows the siblings through their successful defensive and then offensive campaigns against the Vikings, to Edward’s takeover of Mercia in 918, following Aethelflaed’s death, and finally ending with the early reign of Edward’s son, Aethelstan, and his conquest of northern England in 927.

The book’s title, The Fortress Kingdom, alludes to the military strategy at the heart of this conflict. Fortresses (or burhs), guarded by wooden ramparts and deep ditches, were primarily an innovation of Alfred’s and were used to defend his kingdom from the Vikings. However, under his successors, they became instruments of aggression and conquest. Used as springboards for invasions into Viking territory, successful campaigns would be followed up by fortifying captured Viking settlements or building new fortresses at strategic locations, consolidating control over conquered lands.

Chapter Six, “How did a Fortress Work," is particularly useful in explaining this process. Here, readers learn about the machinery behind these fortresses – the numbers in a garrison, the road networks linking them, and the beacon system, which gave each fortress early warning of incoming attacks.

Some may find the search for vanished fortresses disruptive to the book's narrative – was Scergate in Shropshire or Gloucestershire? However, such details are essential in a book so deeply rooted in military geography. With this in mind, Hill makes good use of his 24 in-text "Maps and Plans," showing each fortress’s location, their proximity to one another, and how they might have looked.

The main challenge for the historian of this period is to expand upon the often dry and limited primary sources, which typically merely state that Edward or Aethelflaed captured a certain fortress in a certain year. Yet, in Hill’s account of these fortress battles, he explores broader considerations, including strategic cooperation between the siblings, diplomacy with Celtic kings, negotiations with defeated Viking leaders, and explains how these fortresses became centres of commerce, faith, and urban life.

With its focus primarily on warfare and fortified towns, The Fortress Kingdom is not an extensive dual biography of Aethelflaed and Edward. For readers seeking more detailed personal portraits, Tim Clarkson’s Aethelflaed: Lady of the Mercians (2018) and Michael John Key’s Edward the Elder: King of the Anglo-Saxons (2019) are worthy alternatives. However, this book is unique as it focuses solely on the siblings collectively as military leaders and partners.

While the book targets a general audience and is an engaging and accessible read, its scope is limited to the 28 years from 899 to 927. Thus, newcomers to the Anglo-Saxon period might prefer to start with broader works, such as Marc Morris’s The Anglo-Saxons: A History of the Beginnings of England (2021), or first read Hill’s earlier book on Alfred, before moving on to his latest work. However, those already familiar with early English history will find The Fortress Kingdom an excellent contribution to the existing literature on tenth-century England.

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Edward the Elder

Edward the Elder (r. 899-924) was the son of Alfred the Great (r. 871-899) and the King of the Anglo-Saxons in the early 10th century. He is known for his military victories over the Vikings of East Anglia and the East Midlands and for consolidating his dynasty's control over southern England.

In 865, about a decade before Edward was born, the Great Heathen Army invaded England, destroying the royal dynasties of several English kingdoms, including East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria and establishing Viking rule across these territories. It fell upon Edward's father, King Alfred of Wessex, to lead the English resistance. He defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Edington in 878 and agreed to a peace treaty with their leader, Guthrum (d. 890), who retreated east to rule over much of the territory conquered by the great army, commonly referred to as 'The Danelaw'. Alfred would spend the next two decades fortifying Wessex, reforming the army and promoting learning and literacy amongst his subjects. He also brought Mercia under his overlordship, after which he took the title 'King of the Anglo-Saxons', denoting his rule over both the Mercians and the West Saxons.

Edward succeeded his father in 899. Most of what we know of his reign comes from a collection of land charters and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which presents him as a relentless and successful warrior-king. His epithet, 'the Elder', was not used during his life but was later used to distinguish him from his great-grandson, Edward the Martyr, King of England (r. 975-978). Though well-regarded as a ruler by medieval chroniclers and modern historians, Edward often remains in the shadow of his more illustrious father. However, there has been more interest in Edward recently due to the TV series The Last Kingdom, in which he is portrayed by Timothy Innes. Yet, the show depicts Edward as a king struggling to step out of his father's shadow, with many of his achievements being accredited to the show's protagonist, Uhtred of Bebbanburg.

Early Life

Edward was born c. 874-877. His parents, Alfred and Ealhswith (d. 902), a Mercian noblewoman, were married in 868. In addition to Edward, the couple had four more children: Aethelflaed (d. 918), who married the Ealdorman of Mercia and later ruled Mercia herself; Aethelgifu, who became the Abbess of Shaftesbury; Aelfthryth (d. 929) who married the Count of Flanders and another son, Aethelweard (d. 920). The earliest mention of Edward in contemporary sources comes from Bishop Asser – a Welsh priest and scholar at Alfred's court – in his work the Life of King Alfred. Asser recounts that Edward spent his youth at the king's court, studying religious and secular texts and was taught to show "humbleness, affability, and gentleness towards all." Edward was also trained in warfare, and while still in his teens, led the West Saxon army to victory over the Vikings at the Battle of Farnham in 893. Around the same time, he appears to have become a regular member of the king's council and married a woman named Ecgwynn, of whom we know little about, although the couple had a son, Aethelstan (d. 939), and a daughter, Edith.

Great Viking Army in England, 865-878 CE

Hel-hama (CC BY-SA)

In the final years of his father's reign, Edward was granted the title 'rex' (king), suggesting he had been appointed co-king alongside his father or, more likely, was given his own kingdom in Kent to provide him with experience ruling before he succeeded his father. Primogeniture (father-to-son succession) had not firmly been established in Wessex; succession was still elective to a certain degree, with the crown passing to the aetheling (prince), favoured by the nobility. Edward's main rival for the throne was his cousin Aethelwold (d. 902), the son of Alfred's brother, King Aethelred of Wessex (r. 865-871). As much of the West Saxon nobility owed their position to Alfred, they were naturally inclined to support Edward's succession, but his experience in warfare and royal administration went a long way to secure their support.

On July 17, 924, Edward the Elder, King of the Anglo-Saxons from 899 until his death, passed away. The son and successor of the legendary Alfred the Great, Edward continued his father’s mission of defending and strengthening the English kingdoms against Viking threats.

During his reign, Edward expanded Anglo-Saxon control through military campaigns and alliances, gradually bringing more territories under his authority. He captured key areas held by Viking rulers and helped lay the foundations for a more unified English kingdom. His victories, combined with the efforts of his sister Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, played a major role in pushing back Scandinavian influence.