#2020witchchallenge-jan

~Week 1~

Topic: Ancient Greece

When: 12-9 BC through 600 AD

Where: Greece, specifically Athens

What was life like for the upper class? What sort of clothes did they wear, what did they eat and drink? How did they spend their time?

The upper class were the Greeks born to Athenian parents, citizens of Athens. They were the rich and powerful of Athenian society, holding all power politically AND militarily. Meat was reserved for the wealthy, diets consisted mainly of bread, olives, beans, grapes, figs, milk and cheese. They never drank milk, they considered it barbaric, and drank either water or wine. Men would go to town to barter for market, women would stay at home and keep house.

What was life like for the ordinary citizen? What sort of clothes did they wear, what did they eat and drink? How did they spend their time?

An “ordinary” citizen were the commoners, a group made of up slaves that won their freedom and had basic legal and social privileges. While the rich had more luxurious leisure activities, commoners were most likely playing soccer, hoop, or dice. Hoop is a game involving an iron hoop propelled forward with a wooden stick. They ate mostly like the rich, just no meat. They grew their own food, veggies and fruits, and raised the goats to make the milk for goat cheese. All Greeks mostly two light garments draped across their bodies, that also doubled as bedding.

What role did magic play?

The Greeks have a god specifically for witchcraft. Their magic consisted of evil prayers, incantations, poisons, potions (love potions), spells, curse tablets, drugs, and powerful amulets. Magicians were feared, and people would come to them to fix ailments/bring happiness to themselves. Magic in the Greek world was not just prevalent in the realm of private individuals, neither was it reserved for the poor and illiterate.

What was the most used form of magic (e.g. curses, weather magick)?

Cursing seemed to be the more prevalent form of magic. That, potions, and amulets were mostly used in that time.

What was the public perception of magic? Was it endorsed? Hated?

It depends on the class, a lot of commoners would seek out magicians for help, upper class individuals would punish magicians, usually with the death penalty. Magicians also relied on handouts to eat.

What was the public perception of those who practiced magic?

Again, depends on the class^ see above answer.

What similarities do you see between their magic and modern witchcraft? What differences?

Myself being a curse friendly witch, I liked that I chose this topic to research. I hadn’t known that Greek magick would be curse friendly, honestly expected it to be more wholesome and lovey dovey. So I can see similarities between the magick I practice to the magick they practiced. Especially with the amulets that most witches will glamour in today’s time, like necklaces or rings, etc.

Week one! 

I’m behind a week because things got busy, but here we go!

Topic: The reign of Liu Che

When: 141-87 BCE (Han Dynasty)

Where: China

What was life like for the upper class? What sort of clothes did they wear, what did they eat and drink? How did they spend their time?

At the time 141 BCE when Liu Che  took the throne, he was 16 years old. The empire was in a time of unrest, and financial difficulty with uprisings from “princes” in the empire, and attacks on the boarders. The upper class typically wore traditional robes and pleated skirts. The majority of the upper class were government officials of some sort, so they probably spent their time attending business, looking to please the emperor, and worrying about ending up on Lie Che’s list of witchcraft practitioners.

What was life like for the ordinary citizen? What sort of clothes did they wear, what did they eat and drink? How did they spend their time? 

At the time, typical citizens spent most of their time farming, mining salt or iron for the emperor, and in general surviving as best they could. They probably wore tunics on a regular day, with the traditional robes and pleated skirts on special occasions.

What role did magic play?

During the early years of Liu Che’s reign, he was desperately seeking immortals and their secrets to everlasting life, hunting down horses who were rumored to bring the owner blessings from the spirits, and building immense palaces to please the earth spirits. His spirituality was heavily ritualistic, which bleeds into witchcraft that developed in later years. 

in 96 BCE the emperor became paranoid, and started his very own witch trials, seeking and destroying entire clans of people who he suspected were working witchcraft against him. 

What was the most used form of magic (e.g. curses, weather magick)?

Witchcraft during the Han Dynasty typically concerned earth deities and spirits, and ancestral work as well. 

What was the public perception of magic? Was it endorsed? Hated?

At the time, witchcraft was still partially ingrained in the spiritual traditions; they were one and the same. As Liu Che pursued his own magic interests, it was more widely accepted and began to morph with Confucianism in a way. of course, as the witch trials began, witchcraft gained a more dark reputation, and practice was avoided at the risk of losing an entire blood line. 

What was the public perception of those who practiced magic?

During the early years, those who practiced witchcraft were seen as medicine men and miracle workers. The so called immortals Liu Che sought out were some of these people; that all changed as the emperors paranoia began to shape the public image of anyone even rumored to have practiced witchcraft. 

What similarities do you see between their magic and modern witchcraft? What differences?

Finally getting around to doing this had a pretty bad case of winter blues. Legalized weed has been helping with it.  

Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome & Ancient Egypt

I decided to do three of the societies since they are the ones, I love the most. I know there are a lot of similarities in their societies especially from conquering each other.  I have never really done in an in-depth study about magic during these times.  I know they were all Polytheistic societies who prayed and gave offerings to their Gods. I know Oracles existed especially in Ancient Greece and were often considered to be blessed by Apollo. The Greeks and Romans had the Goddess Hecate who was Goddess of moon and witchcraft.  These are societies where religion, science, and politics were all merged.

I skipped really doing the daily life sections mostly because I love Ancient Greece, Rome and Egypt.  I know a good amount of their daily life since I am planning on writing a novel or novels set in these times.  They mostly have 3 class structures of the upper class, merchant class, and poor. Upper class has the most money, most political influence and most of the power. There were a lot of marriages done for politics and power.  Members of the merchant class can be wealthy but not all of them were.  The upper class often did what they could to limit the power of the middle class. The poor usually the one with the small homes or the not the best land for farming.  There were the poor that lived by each other in something like a community.  They would help each other as best they could.

Slavery was as a thing usually people who were conquest of war or kidnapped. Purchasing of slaves did happen as well.  As will most all cases of slavery, they were considered to inferior and treated horribly. There is a very consistent history in how slaves are treated throughout history spanning all the way back to BC. They would have the chance the to buy their freedom which was usually easier for those who worked in a merchant trade. Sometimes some could be given freedom after serving in the army. Ancient Egypt did give their slaves more rights such as letting them inherit land.  They were able to marry and own personal belongings.  

Women barely had rights and often had to deal with whatever their husbands wanted.  In Ancient Rome a man could keep his mistress in the same house where his family lived.  Most often if there was a divorce then the husband had to give back the woman’s dowry.  If she was a widow, then she was often expected to marry within the family so they could keep the land and money.  In Sparta in Ancient Greece women there had more right as in they could own land and do physical training. Women did have some better rights in Ancient Egypt where they were able to own and inherit land. They were even allowed to learn a skilled trade and they could divorce their husbands.  Which is not really something women were able to do in Ancient Greece or Rome.  There are some rare cases where it happened, but they were few and far between.  Women who were prostitutes where often divided by the ones in a brothel which was the lowest.  They also had the higher-level ones who were educated in music, culture and even some politics.  They resembled more of what someone would consider an escort.  

For these lessons I was most curious about the role magic played and if it differed from what I have been thinking this whole time.  I find the history of magic to be rather fascinating especially way people treat magic and those who practiced it.  

Ancient Greece:

When: 12th – 9th BC

Where: Greece and various colonies around the Middle East, Europe and Africa which includes Egypt. What role did magic play? Magic was practiced by people who specialized in magic.  They had the Goddess Hecate was the Goddess of Moon and Witchcraft.  Circe was a sorceress mentioned in fiction who was proficient in herbalism and could turn people into animals.  Usually practiced by both men and women.  It was something separate from religion.   What was the most used form of magic (e.g. curses, weather magick)? They did spells, enhanced drugs, love potions, binding spells and cursed items.  They created amulets which contained the spell that was cast.  Like the Ancient Egyptians they kept a record of spells on papyri but this was done more by those who were Graeco- Egyptian then Graeco-Roman.  Graeco-Egyptian were considered Hellenistic and they would add Egyptian elements to their religious practices.   What was the public perception of magic? Was it endorsed? Hated?  Magic did have an association with death and evil mostly to separate it from religious practices. Magic was trying to achieve more selfishness and power while religion was uses for the benefit of society.  Religious rituals were used to give favor to the Gods and asks them for divine help.  Magic did not always have a religious or scientific base.  There were spells cast that did evoke Gods or ask for their favor.   There were the Oracles of Dephi who were priestess of Apollo who where gift with the powers to translated messages from the Gods and prophecy.  

People in every class level would seek out help from those who practiced magic for various aspects in their life. There were many people who would wear amulets for good luck or protection.  There has also be cases of finding curses with the death because people believed they could take the request with them. Also binding dolls have been found buried with the dead.

There were cases of people who were killed because they practiced harmful magic. They did have laws against those who killed with magic.  Plato advocated punishing those who sold spells and cursed tablets.  While there were other philosophers who thought magic should be eradicated.  Necromancy was illegal but people would still practice it in secret.  They would often build temples where they thought an entrance to the Underworld was.  They temples were often dedicated to Hades and Persephone.  People often sought the dead because they believed they had the ability to tell the future. What was the public perception of those who practiced magic? There were the Magi were more than just magical practitioners but were also considered to be masters in mathematics and science.  Since magic did carry a slight stigma to is often those who practiced where members of the poor class.   What similarities do you see between their magic and modern witchcraft? What differences?  There are some similarities to modern timed where people are still casing spells and curses.  There are people who still fear magic believing it was evil even today.  Necromancy still has stigmas to this very day. There are still people who seek out those who know magic or divination for help and guidance. There is a lot more acceptance of magic and divination in modern day so there are some making a living with their gifts. Magic is often associated with specific religions unlike before where they were seperate.  People who practice today even worship the Greek Gods.  There are a lot of ways that are still similar because people often pass down ideas of superstition and fear.  

Ancient Rome

When: 8th century BC – 5th century AD

Where: Italy, much of Europe including Greece and the United Kingdom, most of the Middle East and Africa including Egypt. What role did magic play? Magic was practiced by actual practitioners, but it was also done by everyday people.  Magic was usually used for political, legal or economic gain. It was also used for protection, all children wore amulets to protect against death.  They did blend magic with their religion. They also worshiped the Goddess Hecate like the Greeks. What was the most used form of magic (e.g. curses, weather magick)? They created amulets which were imbued with the spell casted. People would pay to have political rivals killed by those who knew magic. They would also use magic in the cases of love, chariot races, legal cases, health and fertility.  There has been evidence found of binding spells, magical gems and cursed objects being used.  People would as seek protection from the supernatural elements such as the evil eye.  It was common for parents to get amulets for children to protect them from death.  Some magic was used in rituals that would evoke the Gods Incantation were performed for various reasons often written down on papyri and found in various inscriptions. Exorcisms where also performed as was weather magic and sex magic. There would also practice divination of animal entrails and with using animals in general. What was the public perception of magic? Was it endorsed? Hated? The Romans took over the Greek Gods and renamed them when they conquered Greece. There were laws against magic that killed.  

Most people regardless of social class used magic.  They would often get items form magical practitioners who would set up a stand outside a temple.  Magic was often found in medicine, alchemy, astrology and divination.  It was a major part of daily life.  

The Roman government did have concerns about magic in 510 BC – 476 AD there were laws in place banning the practice of magic.  Often anyone found practicing would be persecuted.  It did not stop people from practicing magic. What was the public perception of those who practiced magic?  I was not able to find much on how people felt about those who practiced magic. Some people were skeptical about those who performed magic.  Since it was used for so many reasons in everyday society.  It would stand to reason that people had a favorable outlook.  It is also human nature to fear what they do not know so I am sure there were people who feared it.  Practitioners of magic could be found in all class levels. What similarities do you see between their magic and modern witchcraft? What differences? Shops where people can buy magical items is similar today.  It was more widely used during Ancient Rome. In this day an age people do not have amulets done for their children to prevent death. This was a very common practice against everyone.  It is very rare to see people call on magical practitioners for spells and talismans for various aspects on their life. It is similar that the practice of magic can be found with any social class.  People still perform certain rituals and spells for various aspects in their life.

Ancient Egypt

When: 3050 BC – 30 BC and Roman occupation from 30 BC – 641 AD

Where: Egypt and most of western Africa as well as small area of the Middle East located nearby. What role did magic play? Magic was called by two names Heka which was used by everyone.  Akhu which was used by stars and deities.  It was through heka that symbolic actions could have some effects.  People drew Heka as a person since it was not uncommon for the Egyptians to personify things.  Heka might also be the name of a God, there was conflicting information.  Priests were the main practitioners; they were the only ones who could read the ancient tomes, so they were the guardians of the knowledge.  For a long time lector priests were the ones who protected the Pharaoh and would help lead the dead to be reborn. The priest who served Sekhmet were known for healing magic.  There were the scorpion charmers who would get rid of poisonous reptiles and insects. Midwives and the wise women were also known to incorporate magic in their skills.  Protection-makers were the ones who usually created magical amulets.  Most rituals were done in the temple without an audience.  There is evidence to suggest that people practiced their own style of magic at home. What was the most used form of magic (e.g. curses, weather magick)? The Ancient Egyptians were known for casting curses. There are many well known cases of curses on the entrances to tombs.  Magic rituals often accompanied their funeral process.  It was not uncommon to people to be mummified with amulets. They would create amulet which were covered in symbolism.  Members of all the classes could be found wearing amulets.  Magic was used for healing, protection and potion making. The Ancient Egyptians were among the first to record spells and incantations on papyri. It was not uncommon to sure those who practiced magic to use wands. What was the public perception of magic? Was it endorsed? Hated?  Magic was approved by the state and only foreigners were usually accused of using evil magic.  Since most of the people were not very literate all written spells were considered prized possessions handed down in families.  Magic was performed in the temples every day.   What was the public perception of those who practiced magic? Magic was a very much a huge aspect of daily life with everyone practicing some form of it.  The perception was positive until the Roman’s took over which caused things to change more to their views of magic. What similarities do you see between their magic and modern witchcraft? What differences? The biggest difference is that everyone believed in magic. All people were practicing it from royalty to slaves.  It was done in the temples every day.  Fear was used to keep people relying on magic.  While we have priest and priestess that perform magic in religions its not to extent it was in Ancient Egypt. This was a world that completely believed in the power of magic.  Like today they had people who practiced in their homes which is probably the most common way people practice now.  They too handed down spells within families which is also something that happens today within some families.  The use of magical talismans for luck and protection can still be found today.  

Ancient Magick Jan 1 - 7

Topic: Ancient Greece

When: Roughly 700 - 480 B.C.

Where: Southeastern Europe. Mainland is a large peninsula surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea.

Social Classes:

The class system, from highest to lowest, looked like this: male citizens, semi-free labourers, women (belonging to male groups but without rights), children, slaves, and foreigners. These are just broad groups, however. Within the male citizens group, there were many classes. The ‘best people’ were at the top, also called the aristoi. They were the most rich and could provide armor and artillery for themselves with ease. Men typically wore a chilton, which was made of lighter material since they were outside more; usually worn for exercise. These citizens lived a lavish lifestyle, and contained many of the powerful politicians.

Women wore a peplos, being a tunic from heavier material, typically draped over one shoulder. Women were unable to vote and had very few rights, for her main purpose was to take care of the family and children. However in Sparta, they were granted more rights than in Athens. Labourers, lastly, are the second lowest class before slaves. They were semi-free and dependent on their employer. They couldn’t be sold like slaves and often lived with their families. Though it was safer than being a slave, they weren’t granted any real security and were still harshly treated. They worked for most of their lives, and ate what they could.

Magick within Greece:

Magic in Greece contained spells and evil prayers, curse tablets, enhancing drugs and deadly poisons, amulets, and love potions. Magic was practiced by male and females who wanted to help their daily lives. First practitioners of magick were endorsed, and seen as wise holders of secrets and masters of diverse fields, such as mathematics and science. They were also feared, since they were so strongly associated with death and evil. They were impoverished and relied on to survive. Though the public perception of magick isn’t overwhelmingly negative, it is worth mentioning that the death penalty was delivered to a man and his family who were found guilty of harmful magic. Another woman received the death sentence for distributing bewitching drugs. Amulets were a large part of practiced magick. Talismans (bringing luck) and phylacteries (protection) were typically made of wood, bone, stone, and sometimes gemstones, though rarely. Many had inscribings of shapes, such as a phallus, eye, vulva, knots, Egyptian scarab, and a hand making a crude gesture. Many of these amulets are still used today in Greece, typically the evil eye, and Italy, which is typically the cornicello horn. Amulets were worn to cure a physical problem, to win sporting competitions, attract love, keep away evil, or protect the wearer of any bad magic. To make one, one had to invoke the Gods. Amulets were a widely accepted portion of magick, and used by everyone. Curse tablets were used to maintain public order, magic spells continued within Greece after the Egyptians and were used to help physical issues, improve one’s sex life, exorcism, initiation ceremonies, get rid of wild animals in the home, or to make an amulet. Poisons also appear, which used rare herbs and spices and incense from Asia.

Extra: Lesser Known Greek Gods

I know this wasn’t on the sheet, however there are so many gods within the Greek culture, I wanted to explore some further. By no means am I saying these gods aren’t known by anyone, however these are just some that I didn’t know beforehand. Links for more information about these gods will be in the sources section.

The Astra Planeti - Gods of the wandering planets

The Horae - In charge of the seasons, and kept the constellations in line

Aeacus, Minos, and Rhadamanthus - judge those who died and decide upon punishment

Zephyros of the west wind, Euros of the east, Boreas of the north, and Notos of the south - gods of the winds

Nemesis - helped to avenge those who were wronged

The Muses - Clio (History), Urania (Astronomy), Melpomene (Tragedy), Thalia (Comedy), Terpsichore (Dance), Calliope (Epic Poetry), Erato (Love Poetry), Polyhymnia (Songs to the Gods), Euterpe (Lyric Poetry).

The Fates - though known from Hadestown, Hercules, and Percy Jackson, these three Fates (Clotho - spinner, Lachesis - measurer, and Atropos - cutter) decide the destiny of a man’s life. I strongly suggest reading more about these!

Sources:

Doreen Valiente

Life: January 4, 1922 – September 1, 1999

Born: Mitcham in South London, England

Died: Brighton, England

Wiccan Priestess and writer

Called the Mother of Modern Witchcraft

Highlights:

Wrote most of the early religious literacy within Gardnerian Wicca

Wrote 5 books on about Wicca

Started practicing when she was a teenager

Married and widowed twice

Worked as a translator during WWII

Initiated into Gardnerian Wicca but found Gerald Gardner in 1953

High Priestess of the Bricket Wood coven

Rewrote their Book of Shadows

Wrote an invocation used Yule rituals

Co-wrote The Witches Rune chant

Co-wrote many rituals that shaped the evolution of Wicca

Increased the emphasis on the Goddess within the religion

Left Gardner’s coven in 1957 with Ned Grove because of a different in views

Started her own coven in 1957 but it was short lived

Became more open about being Wiccan after her mother died

Wrote various articles for Light, Fate, and Prediction

Interviewed by the Evening Argus about Wicca

In 1963 joined Raymond Howard’s Coven of Atho

In 1964 she joined Robert’s Cochrane’s Clan of Tubal Cain but eventually left

Second President of Witchcraft Research Association

Appeared in the BBC documentary Power of the Witch

1971 involved in the founding of the Pagan Front

Developed the 3 central principals the Pagan Front

Lobbied against a proposed law that would have made witchcraft illegal it was never passed.

Had a long time relationship with fellow Wiccan Robert Cooke after the death of her second husband

Became a member of the Silver Malkin coven

She thought that Wiccans should ally with feminist and environmental movement

She author various articles for The Ley Hunter magazine about ley line

With the Farrar’s published the original contents of the Gardnerian Book of Shadows

1995 became a patron of the Center for Pagan Studies

Died of pancreatic cancer

Gardner & Bricket Wood Coven: during her time as High Priestess of the Bricket Wood coven she noticed a lot of information had been taken from Aleister Crowley. With Gardner’s permission she rewrote the Book of Shadows taking out much of Crowley’s influence. During this time she wrote a few incantations and chants that were added to the Book of Shadows. Valiente and a few other members of the coven were not happy with Gardner’s desire for publicity. Many of them worried about the covens security the more Gardner talked with the press. This causes two fractions to arise with Valiente learning one and Gardner leading the other. Valiente with Ned Fox created a list of proposed rules. Gardner claimed their were already such rules with the Wiccan Laws. Much of those laws actually limited the power of the High Priestess. Many believe he did that in response to her proposed rules. In 1957 she left the coven with a few of her followers.

Cochrane & Clan of Tubal Cain: while Valiente was skeptical about Cochrane’s claim he came from a family of witches. She did like the fact he wanted to stay out out of the public eye and work outdoors. Valiente eventually became unhappy with Cochrane who was blatantly committing adultery and drug use. He would often insult Garnerian Wicca and basically wanted to purge them in a similar fashion to the Nazi’s. She would openly challenge him and eventually left the clan. After Cochrane’s ritual suicide Valiente stayed in contact with his widow. She would work the group founded by the former members on occasion.

Pagan Front: the Pagan Front was a group that wanted religious rights for Pagans. She developed their inauguration full moon ritual. She was the chair of the nation meeting. Valiente developed the three central principles the group used: adhere to Wiccan Rede, belief in reincarnation, and kinship with nature. When she moved into the councils accommodation is where she meet Robert Cooke who would be her partner until his death.

Bibliography:

Where Witchcraft Lives

An ABC of Witchcraft

Natural Magic

Witchcraft of Tomorrow

The Rebirth of Witchcraft

Charge of the Goddess

Doreen Valiente – Witch

Week 2!! 

Helena Blavatasky

Born: August 12, 1831 Dnipro Ukraine

Died: May 8, 1891 London United Kingdom

Helena founded the Theosophical society in Russia in the mid-late 1800′s! 

From what I can tell, Helenas goal was to highlight the fallacies of Christain theology as well as other organized religions, while bringing attention to her own thoughts and beliefs outlined in her society. Towards the end of her life she lost control of this society and stepped down, moving to London where she died.  

Below are a few quotes from Mrs. Blavatasky, which seems to me laid the foundation for the brand of thinking and witchcraft that is incorporated in my own practice! Looking forward to doing some more research on her!

“The chief difficulty which prevents men of science from believing in divine as well as in nature Spirits is their materialism.

The Universe is worked and guided from within outwards.

When: 700-480 BCE

Where: Greece (I’m specifically concentrating on the city-state of Athens for this project)

The upper class in Athens was composed of citizens, men born in and around Athens. This upper class was responsible for governing the other classes and educating their own sons. Women of all classes were responsible for managing the household and producing clothes - for citizens, this meant chiton and cloak, richly dyed with colors if they were prosperous. Purple, especially, was a treasured color for the Greek citizen. Life among the lower classes of Greeks was a little more rigorous, especially for the slave class. They, too, wore chiton and cloak, but usually in natural colors, since they wouldn’t have access to dye. Street food was popular among the working class, and lentil soup was especially cheap and available. 

 There’s a large overlap between Greek magic and myth. The Greeks were polytheistic, and their gods were intricately linked to what we would call magic today. There’s even some question of how much Greeks believed in their myths (see Did the Greeks Believe in Their Myths? By Paul Veyne), and one is inclined to transfer this doubt to their magic practitioners as well. 

There were two words for magic in Greek: mageia, and goeteia. These included “spells and evil prayers (epoidai), curse tablets (katadesmoi), enhancing drugs and deadly poisons (pharmaka), amulets (periapta) and powerful love potions (philtra).” The source I found claimed that “Associated with death, divination, and evil-doing magicians were, no doubt, feared...often impoverished and reliant on handouts to survive.” However, the Magi of Persia were also seen as “wise holders of secrets but also masters of such diverse fields as mathematics and chemistry.” So it probably had a lot to do with one’s personal experience with magicians, priests, and magic spells. If you look at mythology and magic within the legends, it is notable that dark magic is often practiced by women, often giving the woman power at the expense of a man. Perhaps the best example of this would be Circe, the magic-wielding goddess who imprisoned men who trespassed on her island as pigs, and famously kept Odysseus captive during his journey home. (Side note: I highly recommend Circe by Madeleine Miller, it is a gorgeous story of a woman taking control of her life through magic.) The author of that first article I cited also mentions Medea, the sorceress who tricks Jason (though it might also be pointed out that Jason uses her badly), and Hercules’ wife Deianeira, who killed Hercules with centaur blood. One might say there were mixed reviews of magic users as a whole, and these were heavily tainted with misogyny. 

  As with modern witchcraft, Ancient Athenian magic could be used for good or ill. The main difference is that magic played a role in legislature and judicial decisions, as in the cases of a man in the 5th century BCE being executed (his family was too, by the way) for “pharmaka deleteria” or harmful magic. It was taken seriously by authorities, not just by practitioners or seekers. Today, you can still easily purchase “evil eye” protective amulets such as those pictured above, not just in Greece but in a number of the Eurasian countries. Does that mean that magic is taken more seriously there than in America? The question remains open.

Link to the google doc with footnotes and everything: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1xpGsJVZgs8fG_LoxyOuj13mF_dG0ELBNYDCMNzGm2SM/edit?usp=sharing