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 Week 12: Crowd sourcing in times of crisis

In today’s digital society, social media and online platforms have transformed the way people respond to crises. During emergencies such as natural disasters, pandemics, or humanitarian crises, individuals are now able to share information, organize support, raise funds, and coordinate assistance online almost instantly. This process is commonly known as crowdsourcing, where large groups of people collectively contribute information, resources, or problem-solving efforts through digital platforms (Panchal, 2024).

Crowdsourcing has become an important example of digital citizenship because it demonstrates how online communities can work together to support society during difficult times. Platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, TikTok, and Google Maps are frequently used to spread urgent updates, locate missing individuals, organize donations, and share safety information during emergencies.

One major example of crowdsourcing in recent years was during the COVID-19 pandemic. Around the world, people used social media to share health resources, fundraising campaigns, food aid information, and mental health support. In Malaysia, online communities actively helped vulnerable groups by spreading donation links and coordinating aid through hashtags and community pages. Digital platforms became spaces where ordinary citizens could participate directly in helping others during the crisis (Szeto et al., 2024).

Another strong example is the use of crowdsourcing during natural disasters such as floods in Malaysia. During the severe floods that affected several Malaysian states in 2021 and 2022, social media users shared real-time information about evacuation centers, rescue requests, road conditions, and donation needs. Volunteers and NGOs relied heavily on online updates to coordinate assistance quickly. This showed how crowdsourcing can provide immediate support faster than traditional communication channels in some situations.

An important concept connected to crowdsourcing is collective intelligence, where knowledge from many individuals is combined to solve problems more effectively. According to researchers, digital platforms allow communities to gather and distribute information rapidly, especially during emergencies when official information may be delayed (Bruns, 2017). Crowdsourcing therefore reflects the power of participatory digital culture, where users actively contribute rather than remain passive audiences.

However, crowdsourcing also comes with challenges. One major issue is the spread of misinformation during crises. False information about rescue locations, fake donation campaigns, or inaccurate health advice can spread quickly online and create confusion. This demonstrates why digital literacy and responsible online behavior are essential parts of digital citizenship. Users must verify information carefully before sharing it with others.

Another issue is unequal access to technology. Not everyone has reliable internet access or digital skills, meaning some communities may still struggle to benefit from online crisis support systems. This highlights that while digital platforms can empower communities, digital inequality remains an important concern (Wong et al., 2025).

In my opinion, crowdsourcing shows the positive potential of digital communities during times of crisis. Social media allows people to help each other quickly, organise support efficiently, and create strong feelings of solidarity even among strangers. However, these benefits are only effective when users act responsibly and critically evaluate information before sharing it. Ultimately, crowdsourcing demonstrates that digital citizenship is not just about consuming content online — it is also about using digital platforms to support and protect communities during difficult times.

References

Panchal, J. (2024). Unveiling the Role of social media in Shaping Responses to Natural Disasters. ITM Web of Conferences, 65, 03016. https://doi.org/10.1051/itmconf/20246503016

Szeto, S., Au, A. K. Y., & Cheng, S. K. L. (2024). Support from Social Media during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review. Behavioral Sciences, 14(9), 759. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14090759

Bruns, A. (2017). Gatewatching and news curation. https://doi.org/10.3726/b13293

Week 11: Digital Citizenship and Conflict: Social Media Governance

Social media has become one of the most powerful communication spaces in modern society. Platforms such as Facebook, TikTok, Instagram, and X influence how people receive news, express opinions, and participate in public discussions. However, with this influence comes conflict, especially regarding misinformation, hate speech, political manipulation, and online harassment. This is where the concept of social media governance becomes important (L. Li, 2025).

Social media governance refers to the rules, policies, and systems used to regulate online platforms and user behavior. Governments, technology companies, and users themselves all play roles in shaping how digital spaces are managed. One of the biggest challenges is balancing freedom of expression with the need to reduce harmful content online.

A major example of this issue can be seen in the spread of misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic. False claims about vaccines, treatments, and conspiracy theories spread rapidly across social media platforms, influencing public attitudes and behaviour. Platforms like Facebook and TikTok responded by removing misleading posts, adding fact-checking labels, and promoting official health information. According to research, social media governance became increasingly important during this period because online misinformation had direct real-world consequences for public health and safety (Suzor, 2019).

In Malaysia, discussions about social media governance have also become more visible, especially regarding online hate speech, fake news, and political communication. The Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) has frequently warned users against spreading false information online, particularly during elections and national crises. This demonstrates how governments are increasingly involved in regulating digital communication spaces.

Another example is the debate surrounding content moderation on platforms like X (formerly Twitter). Under the ownership of Elon Musk, discussions about free speech and moderation became more controversial. Some users argued that reducing moderation protects freedom of expression, while others believed it increased harmful content and misinformation online. This reflects the complexity of governing digital platforms where millions of people with different perspectives interact daily.

An important concept connected to social media governance is platform power. Large technology companies do not simply host content — they actively shape what users see through algorithms, moderation systems, and platform policies. According to Gillespie (2019), platforms function as powerful gatekeepers that influence public discourse and visibility online. This means that private companies now have significant control over digital communication and online communities.

At the same time, users also share responsibility as digital citizens. Responsible digital citizenship involves critically evaluating information before sharing it, respecting others online, and understanding platform rules. Many online conflicts become worse because users spread misinformation or engage aggressively without verifying facts. Therefore, digital literacy is essential in helping users navigate online spaces more responsibly (Isnaini et al., 2025).

In my opinion, social media governance is necessary because online platforms have major influence over society, politics, and public opinion. However, governance should be balanced carefully to avoid excessive censorship while still protecting users from harmful content. As digital citizens, people should not rely entirely on platforms or governments to manage online spaces. Users themselves must also practice ethical communication, critical thinking, and respectful engagement online (Mekheimer & Abdelhalim, 2025).

References

Li, L. (2025). The role and impact of social media in public governance. Lecture Notes in Education Arts Management and Social Science, 3(11), 62–67. https://doi.org/10.18063/lne.v3i11.1437

Suzor, N. P. (2019). Lawless. In Cambridge University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108666428

Gillespie, T. (2019). Custodians of the internet. In Yale University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300235029

Isnaini, I., Nasyiriyah, T. N., Istighfari, N. A., & Rohmah, S. R. (2025). The role of digital literacy in social media. MIMESIS, 6(1), 58–74. https://doi.org/10.12928/mms.v6i1.12242

Week 10: Gaming Communities, Social Gaming and Live Streaming: Twitch

Gaming today is no longer an isolated activity. With the rise of live-streaming platforms such as Twitch and YouTube, gaming has evolved into a highly social and interactive digital culture. Players can now communicate, collaborate, and build communities in real time while watching others play games online. This reflects the growing importance of social gaming, where entertainment is shaped not only by gameplay itself but also by interaction between streamers and audiences.

One important aspect of gaming communities is the sense of belonging they create. On Twitch, viewers are not simply passive audiences. They actively participate through live chats, donations, subscriptions, memes, and inside jokes that help form strong online communities. Streamers often develop loyal fanbases where audiences feel emotionally connected to both the creator and other viewers. Research suggests that these interactions create feelings of community, friendship, and shared identity among users (Chang et al., 2020).

A good example is the popularity of Twitch streamer Kai Cenat, whose livestreams regularly attract thousands of viewers. His streams are not only focused on gaming but also include humour, reactions, collaborations, and conversations with audiences. This demonstrates how livestreaming has become a form of participatory entertainment where viewers contribute to the experience through comments and engagement. Twitch culture therefore reflects what scholars describe as participatory media culture, where audiences actively shape content rather than simply consume it.

Gaming communities also became especially important during the COVID-19 pandemic, when many people turned to online gaming and livestreams for social interaction and emotional support. Platforms like Twitch allowed users to maintain social connections despite physical isolation. According to studies, livestreaming communities helped reduce loneliness by creating spaces for communication and shared experiences online (M. S. Kim et al., 2023).

However, gaming communities are not always positive spaces. Twitch and online gaming platforms have also faced criticism regarding toxic behaviour, harassment, sexism, racism, and cyberbullying. Female streamers in particular often experience inappropriate comments and discrimination while streaming. This highlights the importance of digital citizenship in gaming environments. Users must learn to engage respectfully and responsibly online, while platforms themselves also have responsibilities in moderating harmful behaviour.

In the Malaysian context, gaming and livestreaming culture have grown rapidly among younger audiences. Malaysian streamers on platforms like Twitch and TikTok Live are increasingly building communities around games such as Mobile Legends: Bang Bang and Valorant. Gaming is now not only entertainment but also a social activity, career opportunity, and form of digital identity for many young people (Sabri et al., 2024).

Another important concept linked to Twitch is parasocial interaction, where viewers develop one-sided emotional relationships with streamers. Because livestreaming feels direct and personal, audiences may feel close to creators even without knowing them personally. This contributes to strong loyalty within gaming communities and explains why livestreamers can have significant influence over their audiences (Wulf et al., 2021).

In my opinion, Twitch represents how digital media has transformed entertainment into a participatory and community-driven experience. Livestreaming allows people to connect globally through shared interests, humour, and collaboration. However, the growth of gaming communities also shows why digital citizenship matters. Users need to create spaces that are inclusive, respectful, and supportive so online communities can remain positive environments for everyone.

References

Chang, Y., Zhang, Y., & Gwizdka, J. (2020). The effects of information source and eHealth literacy on consumer health information credibility evaluation behavior. Computers in Human Behavior, 115, 106629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106629

Kim, M. S., Wang, S., & Kim, S. (2023). Effects of online Fan Community interactions on Well-Being and Sense of Virtual Community. Behavioral Sciences, 13(11), 897. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13110897

Sabri, T. I. M. T., Syed, M. a. M., & Shamshudeen, R. I. (2024). Tracing the evolution of video game culture in Malaysia: A sociohistorical analysis. International Journal of Creative Multimedia, 5(2), 64–87. https://doi.org/10.33093/ijcm.2024.5.2.5

Week 9: Digital Citizenship and Software literacy: Instagram Filters

In today’s digital culture, social media users interact with software constantly, often without fully understanding how it shapes their online experiences. One important concept discussed this week is software literacy, which refers to the ability to critically understand how digital tools, algorithms, filters, and platforms influence communication, identity, and behavior online. Software literacy is now an essential part of digital citizenship because social media platforms are not neutral spaces — they actively shape how users present themselves and interact with others.

A strong example of this can be seen through Instagram filters. On Instagram, filters are widely used to enhance photos and videos by smoothing skin, changing facial structure, adjusting lighting, or adding visual effects. Although filters may appear harmless or entertaining, they also influence beauty standards and self-perception. Many users, especially young people, become accustomed to seeing idealized versions of themselves online, which can affect confidence and body image.

Research shows that image-editing features and augmented reality (AR) filters can contribute to unrealistic beauty expectations and increased appearance dissatisfaction (Parry et al., 2021). This is especially significant because many filters subtly alter facial features without users fully recognizing how dramatically their appearance has changed. Software therefore becomes invisible yet powerful in shaping identity and social interaction online.

One example that gained widespread attention was Instagram’s removal of certain cosmetic surgery filters in 2019 after concerns that they negatively affected mental health. Filters that simulated plastic surgery effects were criticized for encouraging users to compare themselves to unrealistic beauty standards. This demonstrates how software design can directly influence psychological well-being and public perceptions of beauty (BBC News, 2019).

In the Malaysian context, Instagram filters are heavily used among lifestyle influencers and content creators. Influencers such as Vivy Yusof often share polished and aesthetically curated content that reflects broader Instagram beauty culture. While these visuals are part of branding and digital marketing strategies, they also contribute to audience expectations about appearance and lifestyle. Many users may not realise how much editing, lighting adjustment, or filter enhancement contributes to these seemingly “perfect” images.

Software literacy becomes important because users need to recognise that social media content is often shaped by algorithms and editing tools rather than representing reality directly. According to Manovich (2020), software now acts as a cultural layer that influences nearly every aspect of modern communication and media production. In other words, software is no longer just a tool — it actively structures digital culture itself.

At the same time, filters are not entirely negative. Many creators use them creatively for humour, storytelling, branding, or artistic expression. Instagram filters can make content more engaging and allow users to experiment with identity in playful ways (Rahman et al., 2022). However, digital citizens must still approach these tools critically and understand how they affect perceptions of authenticity, beauty, and self-worth.

In my opinion, software literacy is becoming just as important as traditional media literacy. People often focus on the content they see online without questioning the software systems behind it. Understanding how filters, algorithms, and editing tools operate can help users become more informed and responsible digital citizens. Rather than blindly accepting filtered realities, users should develop critical awareness about how digital platforms shape both online culture and personal identity.

References

Parry, D. A., Fisher, J. T., Mieczkowski, H., Sewall, C. J., & Davidson, B. I. (2021). Social media and well-being: A methodological perspective. Current Opinion in Psychology, 45, 101285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.11.005

BBC News. (2019, October 23). Instagram bans “cosmetic surgery” filters. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-50152053

Manovich, L. (2020). Cultural Analytics. In The MIT Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11214.001.0001

In today’s digital environment, visual social media platforms have become central spaces where ideas about beauty, health, and identity are constantly constructed and negotiated. Platforms such as Instagram, TikTok, and Snapchat are especially influential because they prioritise images and short videos enhanced by filters and editing tools.

A key concept in this topic is body modification, which includes not only physical procedures such as cosmetic surgery or fillers, but also digital alterations like beauty filters, face-smoothing tools, and AI editing apps. These tools allow users to instantly reshape their appearance, creating highly curated versions of themselves that may differ significantly from reality (Coffey et al., 2025).

A clear example of this is the global “Instagram Face” trend, where users adopt similar beauty standards such as flawless skin, defined jawlines, and fuller lips, often achieved through filters or cosmetic enhancements. Influencers and celebrities contribute heavily to this aesthetic, reinforcing a narrow definition of beauty. Research shows that repeated exposure to idealised body images on social media can negatively affect body satisfaction and self-esteem, particularly among young users (Saiphoo & Vahedi, 2019).

In the Malaysian context, this trend can also be seen among local influencers such as Scha Alyahya, who frequently shares highly polished and stylised content on social media. While she is widely admired for her fashion and beauty influence, her posts also reflect how professional photography, makeup, and editing contribute to curated online appearances. This demonstrates how even well-known public figures participate in shaping digital beauty standards that audiences may compare themselves to.

From a digital citizenship perspective, this raises important questions about responsibility and awareness. Influencers play a key role in shaping audience perceptions of beauty and health. Some promote transparency by discussing cosmetic procedures or disclosing edits, while others present heavily curated images without explanation. This can blur the boundary between authentic and enhanced appearance, making it difficult for audiences to critically interpret what they see online (Aker et al., 2024).

A growing concern linked to this is “filter dysmorphia,” especially on platforms like TikTok, where users become accustomed to their filtered appearance and may feel dissatisfied with their natural look (Leno, 2026). This highlights how digital tools can influence not only aesthetics but also mental well-being.

However, social media is not entirely negative. Many creators use their platforms to promote body positivity and digital health education, encouraging audiences to accept natural appearances and be more critical of edited content. This reflects responsible digital citizenship, where users actively contribute to healthier online environments.

In my opinion, body modification on social media exists on a spectrum. While it can enhance creativity and self-expression, it also carries risks when unrealistic standards become normalised. Therefore, digital literacy is essential so users can recognise edited content and engage with social media in a more informed and critical way.

References

Saiphoo, A. N., & Vahedi, Z. (2019). A meta-analytic review of the relationship between social media use and body image disturbance. Computers in Human Behavior, 101, 259–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.07.028

Aker, S., Kartal, Y. A., Bulut, A., & Hızlıol, B. (2024). The Identity of Motherhood Transformed by Social Media: A phenomenological study. Journal of Midwifery and Health Sciences, 7(3), 478–486. https://doi.org/10.62425/esbder.1451289

Leno, M., PhD. (2026, January 23). How social media filters reshape self-image, perception, and mental health. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mind-matters/202601/what-is-filter-dysmorphia-and-why-is-it-alarming

Week 7 Digital Citizenship Case Study: Social Media Influencers and the Slow Fashion Movement.

Social media influencers have become powerful figures in shaping trends, consumer behaviour, and online culture. Platforms such as Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube allow influencers to promote products and lifestyles to millions of followers daily. In recent years, many influencers have started promoting the slow fashion movement, which encourages consumers to buy clothing more consciously and sustainably.

Slow fashion focuses on reducing overconsumption, supporting ethical production, and encouraging people to value quality over quantity. This movement challenges the fast fashion industry, where brands produce cheap and trendy clothing rapidly, often contributing to environmental pollution and unethical labour practices. According to research, digital platforms have become important spaces for spreading awareness about sustainability and influencing consumer attitudes toward ethical fashion (McNeill & Venter, 2019).

One important concept connected to this topic is digital citizenship, which involves using digital platforms responsibly and ethically. Influencers who promote slow fashion demonstrate digital citizenship by educating audiences about sustainability, recycling, thrift shopping, and mindful consumption. For example, many influencers create “outfit repeating” videos or thrift hauls to normalise reusing clothing rather than constantly buying new items. These creators use their online influence not only for entertainment but also to encourage social awareness and behavioural change.

Hashtag activism also plays a role in the slow fashion movement. Hashtags such as #SlowFashion, #SustainableFashion, and #WhoMadeMyClothes allow users to participate in discussions about ethical fashion and connect with like-minded communities online. These hashtag publics help spread information quickly and create collective awareness about environmental issues. Research shows that online communities can strengthen activism by encouraging participation and fostering shared values among users (Brydges & Hanlon, 2020).

However, there are also criticisms of influencers within the slow fashion movement. Some influencers promote sustainability while still partnering with fast fashion brands, leading to accusations of “greenwashing.” Greenwashing occurs when companies or individuals appear environmentally responsible mainly for marketing purposes rather than genuine commitment. This can confuse audiences and reduce trust in sustainability campaigns.

In my opinion, social media influencers can positively impact the slow fashion movement when they genuinely promote ethical practices and educate audiences responsibly. Since influencers have strong relationships with followers, they can shape attitudes and inspire lifestyle changes more effectively than traditional advertising (Vehmas et al., 2018). However, audiences should also think critically about the content they consume online and recognise when sustainability is being used mainly as a branding strategy.

Overall, this case study shows that digital citizenship is not only about participating online but also about using influence responsibly to promote meaningful social and environmental change.

References

Brydges, T., & Hanlon, M. (2020). Garment worker rights and the fashion industry’s response to COVID-19. Dialogues in Human Geography, 10(2), 195–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/2043820620933851

McNeill, L., & Venter, B. (2019). Identity, self‐concept and young women’s engagement with collaborative, sustainable fashion consumption models. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 43(4), 368–378. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcs.12516

Week 6: What is Digital Citizenship? Hashtag Publics, Political Engagement and Activism.

In today’s digital world, being a citizen is no longer limited to offline participation. The concept of digital citizenship refers to how individuals use online platforms responsibly, ethically, and actively to engage with society. It includes activities such as sharing information, participating in discussions, and even engaging in political movements through social media.

One important idea linked to digital citizenship is hashtag publics, which describes how people gather online around shared topics using hashtags. Platforms like Twitter, Instagram, and TikTok allow users to participate in large-scale conversations simply by using a hashtag. These hashtag publics are powerful because they enable individuals to feel part of a collective voice, even if they are geographically distant.

A strong example of this is the #BlackLivesMatter movement, which gained global attention through social media. Hashtags helped spread awareness, organise protests, and encourage discussions about racial injustice. This shows how digital platforms can transform individual opinions into collective action. Research suggests that online communities play a significant role in shaping political engagement by encouraging participation and amplifying voices that might otherwise go unheard (Crawford et al., 2021).

Another key aspect of digital citizenship is political engagement and activism. Today, young people especially are more likely to express their political views online rather than through traditional methods like voting or attending physical events. Social media platforms provide accessible spaces for activism, allowing users to share petitions, create content, and mobilise support quickly. However, this also raises questions about “slacktivism,” where users engage only at a surface level, such as liking or sharing posts without taking further action.

At the same time, digital activism can have real-world impact. Studies show that online fandoms and communities can mobilise quickly for causes, raising funds or spreading awareness effectively (Johnson et al., 2024). This demonstrates that digital participation is not always superficial—it can lead to meaningful change when organised effectively.

However, digital citizenship also comes with responsibilities. The spread of misinformation, online harassment, and echo chambers are major concerns. Algorithms on social media platforms often reinforce existing beliefs, limiting exposure to diverse perspectives. This can weaken constructive political discussion and increase polarisation (Li & Pang, 2024).

In my opinion, digital citizenship is about balance. While social media gives individuals the power to speak and act, it also requires critical thinking and ethical responsibility. Being a good digital citizen means not only participating but also ensuring that our actions contribute positively to online communities and society as a whole.

References

Crawford, G., Fenton, A., Chadwick, S., & Lawrence, S. (2021). ‘All Avatars Aren’t We’: Football and the experience of football-themed digital content during a global pandemic. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 57(4), 515–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902211021529

Li, E. C., & Pang, K. (2024b). Fandom meets artificial intelligence: Rethinking participatory culture as human–community–machine interactions. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 27(4), 778–787. https://doi.org/10.1177/13675494241236146

Week 5: Digital Community and Fandom: Reality TV Case Study

Reality television is often dismissed as “mindless entertainment,” but in today’s digital environment, it plays a much bigger role—especially in building online communities and fandoms. Shows like Love Island and Keeping Up with the Kardashians have evolved beyond television screens into interactive, participatory digital cultures.

One key concept discussed this week is participatory culture, where audiences actively engage in creating and sharing content rather than passively consuming media. In today’s digital landscape, this concept has expanded to include interactions between users, communities, and even algorithms (Li & Pang, 2024). Reality TV is particularly suited for this because it is ongoing, emotional, and highly shareable. Fans don’t just watch—they post, comment, meme, and even influence outcomes through voting systems, demonstrating active participation in shaping media narratives (Nam & Jung, 2022).

For example, Love Island has a strong presence on platforms like Twitter, TikTok, and Instagram. Viewers form communities where they discuss contestants, predict outcomes, and create fan edits. These interactions reflect how digital fandoms function as participatory communities, where users collectively produce and circulate content (Crawford et al., 2021). Hashtags like #TeamXYZ allow users to align themselves with certain contestants, forming micro-fandoms within a larger audience.

Another important idea is parasocial interaction, where audiences develop one-sided emotional connections with media personalities. Reality TV intensifies this because contestants are presented as “real people,” making audiences feel more personally invested. These emotional connections often influence how fans engage online, including defending or criticising contestants. In some cases, fandom communities even mobilise collectively, shaping online discourse and behaviour (Luo & Li, 2022).

However, digital fandoms are not always positive. While they encourage creativity and participation, they can also become toxic, leading to cyberbullying or cancel culture. Research shows that fandom spaces can reinforce strong emotional reactions and group behaviour, sometimes resulting in exclusion or hostility (Zheng, 2023). This raises ethical concerns about how audiences interact with “real” individuals in reality TV environments.

In my opinion, reality TV fandom reflects a major shift in media consumption—from passive viewing to active participation. It shows the power of digital communities in shaping media narratives, but also highlights the need for responsible and respectful engagement online.

References

Crawford, G., Fenton, A., Chadwick, S., & Lawrence, S. (2021). ‘All Avatars Aren’t We’: Football and the experience of football-themed digital content during a global pandemic. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 57(4), 515–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902211021529

Nam, J., & Jung, Y. (2022). Exploring fans’ participation in digital media: Transcreation of webtoons. Telecommunications Policy, 46(10), 102407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2022.102407

Li, E. C., & Pang, K. (2024). Fandom meets artificial intelligence: Rethinking participatory culture as human–community–machine interactions. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 27(4), 778–787. https://doi.org/10.1177/13675494241236146

Luo, Z., & Li, M. (2022). Participatory censorship: How online fandom community facilitates authoritarian rule. New Media & Society, 26(7), 4236–4254. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221113923