Inspiration from the Ancient World

Wu Zetian and the Zhou Dynasty I

By Likely to be Zhang Xuan (张萱) - https://www.sohu.com/a/391029246_684011, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=139121925

Born 17 February 624, Wu Zetian's birthplace and birth name were not recorded in any material that survives to the modern day. Her clan, the Wu clan, was close friends with Emperor Gaozu of Tang, as he stayed with the family multiple times before becoming emperor. Her father worked in lumber and her mother was distantly related to the Sui dynasty, the Yang family, so her family was relatively well off and became more so when Emperor Gaozu rewarded them with land, grain, wealth, and clothing, as well as a position as a senior minister for her father when Emperor Gaozu came to power.

Wu Zetian was born in the seventh year of Emperor Gaozu's reign and received an unusual education for women of her time. She was encouraged to read and study topics as wide ranging as music, calligraphy, history, politics, and literature. When she was 14, she became a concubine to Emperor Taizong of Tang, becoming a type of secretary when she did. This allowed her to continue her education. The Tang dynasty had nine ranks of concubines, including the empress, beginning with 27 Selected Ladies in the 9th level. Wu Zetian became one of the 6th level, one of nine Ladies of Talent, under Emperor Taizong. She didn't seem to be favored by him, but did have sex with him at least once. She also had an affair with Li Zhi before he ascended the throne as Emperor Gaozong. Per tradition, Wu Zetian was sent to a monastery after Emperor Taizong's death since she hadn't had any children with him, where she was expected to live the remainder of her life as a Buddhist nun.

When Emperor Gaozong came to the monastery on the anniversary of Emperor Taizong's death, he met her again. Because Empress Wang and Consort Xiao were fighting over Emperor Gaozong's favor, Empress Wang insisted he return Wu Zetian to the palace to divert Emperor Gaozong's attention from Consort Xiao. She became the Lady of Bright Deportment, the first of nine Concubines, the third rank of consorts. Not long after, both Consort Xiao and Empress Wang lost Emperor Gaozong's favor as he 'became enamored with Wu'. Her influence over Emperor Gaozong increased until she had control over the vast majority of the decisions made in the empire. In 652, she gave birth to her first son, Li Hong, and another, Li Xián, in 653. Despite her favored status, Emperor Gaozong was convinced by Liu Shi, his chancellor and Empress Wang's uncle, to name Li Zhong, son of Consort Liu, his heir.

In 654, Wu Zetian gave birth to a daughter that might have died due to strangulation, either by Empress Wang or by her command, with Wu Zetian accusing Empress Wang being seen near the daughter's room, corroborated by another witness. Emperor Gaozong believed the accusations, especially since Empress Wang lacked an alibi. Whether Empress Wang did kill the child or whether the child was a victim of cradle death because of poor air circulation is unknown at this point in time. As a result of the child's death, Emperor Gaozong sought council of his uncle, the head chancellor Zhangsun Wuji, to see about deposing Empress Wang, citing her childlessness multiple times. Zhangsun Wuji tried to keep Emperor Gaozong from dismissing Empress Wang, even though her bareness would be considered enough reason to depose her.

The next year, Wu Zetian accused Empress Wang and her mother, Lady Liu, of witchcraft. This led to Lady Liu being banned from the palace and Liu Shi being demoted. Wu Zetian began gaining more support among the officials within the palace. In the autumn, Emperor Gaozong called the chancellors to the palace to discuss the matter. The chancellors opposed deposing Empress Wang, with one reportedly responding that '[t]his is your family matter, Your Imperial Majesty. Why ask anyone else?'. One of the chancellors was demoted for verbally opposing Emperor Gaozong and he also deposed both Empress Wang and Consort Xiao and placed them under arrest. He elevated Wu Zetian to empress. Later, when Emperor Gazong was considering releasing the former empress and consort, Empress Wu Zetian had them killed, though she would be haunted by them for years.

Empress Consort Wu Zetian deposed Li Zhong as Crown Prince, making her own son, Li Hong, Crown Prince in stead. Those who'd opposed her elevation to Empress were censured, with some being falsely accused of treason. Soon, 'no official dared to criticize the emperor' and those who were inconvenient to Empress Consort Wu Zetian were targeted. In 660, Emperor Gaozong 'began to suffer from an illness that carried the symptoms of painful headaches and loss of vision, generally thought to be hypertension-related', which caused him to turn over many of his daily duties over to Empress Consort Wu Zetian.

Four years later, Emperor Gaozong became upset with the empress' control over the empire and him. She also engaged a Taoist sorcerer, which a eunuch reported to Emperor Gaozong, which made him angrier with her. He consulted a chancellor who advised him to depose Wu Zeitan. As Emperor Gaozong was having the edict drafted, Empress Consort Wu Zeitan received word of it. She plead her case to the emperor as he was holding the edict. Losing his nerve, the emperor blamed the chancellor. The chancellor was later accused of treason by Empress Consort Wu Zetian and executed. Li Zhong was forced to commit suicide for being 'involved' in the conspiracy.

By SY - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=61394089

During the reigns of Emperor Taizong and Gaozong, the primary military enemies of the Chinese people were the Western Turks. The Western Turks controlled the land between the Altai Mountains to the Aral Sea, which gave them access to salt among other resources and trade connections. Initially, the Western Turks tried to develop friendly relationships with the Tang dynasty, hoping that this would protect them from the expansionistic tendencies of the Chinese, but they eventually came into conflict over the Tarim Basin and the oasis states within.

In 630, seven of those oasis states in what is modern day Hami City defected to the Tang dynasty, which made them into the Western Yi Prefecture for administrative purposes. This move followed several years of conflict in the control over the Western Turks. Two years later, the Western Yi Prefecture became the Yi Prefecture, becoming a regular prefecture in the Chinese administration. After several more years of chaos in the upper echelons of the Western Turk leadership led to three more oasis states defecting to the Tang dynasty between 632-635.

Emperor Taizong instigated a civil war in the Western Turk confederations, pitting the eastern and western parts against each other in an strategy of 'using barbarians to control barbarians'. In 641, Tu-lu Qaghan was able to reunite the Western Turks and then began raiding against the Chinese with forays against various Chinese cities on the border. To end the raids, Emperor Taizong encouraged those disaffected with Tu-lu Qaghan's reign to rebel against them, raising Irbis Seguy as a rival leader. Irbis Seguy wanted to cement their diplomatic relationships with marriage to a royal princess but he couldn't give Taizong the oasis states that he wanted because they were vassals and not under his direct control. In 648, Irbis Seguy began raiding Yanqi and Qiuci, which were under Chinese control.

Gaochang, an oasis state, was a sinicized state that began around 498 and had a marriage alliance with the Sui. They also held a monopoly over trade between the western Chinese capital of Chang'an and the west. In either 632 or 638, another trade route opened that bypassed Gaochang. This raised tensions between the two states and Gaochang began raiding Yanqi because they'd initiated the opening of the trade route. They also began intercepting travelers along the trade route and entered an alliance with Tu-lu Qaghan. They were able to gain control of Yanqi by 638 with Emperor Taizong 'reprimand[ing] Qu Wentai [the leader of Gaochang] and threatened to attack Gaochang if he did not change his course'. Qu Wentai ignored Emperor Taizong's summons, claiming illness. Qu Wentai didn't think the Tang would be able to launch so he was caught flat footed when the Tang army rapidly approached in 640. Qu Wentai fell ill and died suddenly and the Western Turks sent support while Qu Wentai's son took control, but the Tang army captured the Gaochang court and took them to Chang'an. Gaochang became the Xi Prefecture and was administered directly by the Tang dynasty.

In 644, the Yanqi felt more and more threatened with the Tang army so close so they changed their alliance to the Western Turks. The Tang dynasty sent an army to Yanqi and they approached 'under the cover of night' so that they could launch an attack at dawn, surprising the Western Turk army and captured Yanqi. A puppet ruler was placed on the throne, but he was overthrown in 648 by his cousin with the support of the Western Turks. Another military campaign by the Tang army reestablished Tang rule and a garrison was established to ensure that the new vassal would remain loyal.

By Cplakidas - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=24355275

When Emperor Gaozu of Tang took the throne, the empire was in a state of chaos. While he was the first cousin of Emperor Yang of Sui, he had to establish his right to rule over the various rebel factions. Three leaders that rose above others were Shen Faxing, who made himself Prince of Liang and claimed a territory south of the Yangtze; Li Zitong, who became Emperor of Wu; and Du Fuwei, who eventually submitted to Tang and was made Prince of Wu and his name was changed to Li Fuwei, and there were many smaller leaders who had to be defeated or brought to surrender to Tang rule. Emperor Gaozu used his son, Li Shimin, and daughter, Princess Pingyan, as leaders of his forces. Li Shimin worked his way toward Luoyang, where Wang Shichong had established the state of Zheng. Because many cities in Zheng surrendered to Tang, Wang was forced to reach out to the state of Xia's leader, Dou Jiande, for assistance since Xia would be the next state in Li Shimin's path.

By the spring of 621, Dou Jiande began moving toward Luoyang, but Li Shimin already controlled Hulao Pass between Xia and Luoyang, and was able to defeat and capture Dou Jiande. Wang Shichong surrendered to Li Shimin. Emperor Gaozu decided to exile Wang Shichong but executed Dou Jiande. Li Xiaogong, Emperor Gaozu's nephew, moved against Xiao Xian's southern China state of Liang, laying seige to Jianging, the Liang capital. Not knowing that friendly forces were approaching him, Xiao Xian surrendered and the army surrendered to Lin Shihong, a self-declared king. At about the same time, Li Fuwei defeated Li Zitong, pulling the state of Wu under Tang rule.

The spring of 622 had Li Shimin defeating Liu Heita, causing him to flee to the Eastern Göktürks, with and army of whom he returned later that same year to take over the Xia territory again. Li Jiancheng, the Crown Prince, defeated Liu again, and Liu fled in spring of 623. He was then betrayed by Zhuge Dewei, one of his officials, and then turned over to Li Jiangcheng who executed him. Lin Shihong died and the state of Chu fell into disarray, with the cities eventually submitting to Tang individually.

Xu Yuanlang, who had controlled Handong, but who had been pushed out by Dou Jiande, but had found a place under Liu Heita who had taken over Handong. Liu Heita died in 623, leaving Xu Yuanlang on the run and he was killed in his flight. This left the north of China largely reunited, at least nominally under Tang rule. The fall saw Li Fuwei dealing with both Chang'an and his lieutenant Fu Gongshi rebelling against him, calling himself the Emperor of Song and claiming dominion over the lands that Li Fuwei had controlled.

Li Xiaogong, another son of Emperor Gaozu, defeated Fu Gongshi in 624. Gao Kaidao, one of the last remaining rebels in the far north of China, was dealing with a coup as well as Tang offensives, and committed suicide, leaving Yan under Tang control. Liang Shidu, who had declared himself Emperor of Liang, working with the Eastern Göktürks was able to hold his ground, further aided as the Eastern Göktürks also carried out raids to harass the Tang.

By SY - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=60788594

While Emperor Yang was living a decadent life in Jiangdu, his Xiaoguo guards began to desert to go back to their families in the north since they realized Emperor Yang wasn't going to go back north. The commanders, thinking that they'd be punished, began to think about joining their troops. This was discussed where the ladies in waiting could overhear. They reported to Empress Xiao, who tried to tell Emperor Yang, but he didn't want to hear any bad news, so when another lady in waiting told Empress Xiao what she'd overheard, Empress Xiao forbade any others from telling her, figuring it was a lost cause. The Xiaoguo officers began to consider who they should elevate instead of Emperor Yang. In the spring of 618, they began their coup, surrounding Emperor Yang. They accused the emperor of crimes, to which Emperor Yang 'admitted his faults, but pointed out that he had always treated them well—drawing the response from Sima [Dekan, one of the commanders]: "All of the earth is angry at you. It does not stop at just one man."'. They killed one of Emperor Yang's sons, Yang Gao, in an effort to show they were serious. Emperor Yang then 'offered to swallow poison, but none could be found quickly'. He then offered one of his scarves and was strangled with it. Many of his relatives were killed at the soon after with only Yang Hao, his nephew, being the only close relative that was spared because he was friendly with one of the mutiny leader's brothers. Yang Hao was then declared emperor. The Dowager Empress Xiao and ladies in waiting were made to build coffins out of the headboards of their beds.

While Yang Hao was nominally the emperor, no evidence exists that shows he actually exercised any political power. Instead, Yuwen Huaji held the imperial powers. He left Jiangdu soon after, leading the Sui court north with the Xiaoguo army. Yang Hao was kept under strict guard and forbidden from meeting his officials and signed edicts he was required to. Yuwen Huaiji's march north was stopped when he ran into Li Mi's forces, who dealt him multiple defeats. Yuwen Huaji, seeing his loss of power, poisoned Yang Hao and declared himself Emperor of Xu on 23 October 618.

In December of 617, Li Yuan, a general under Emperor Yang, became concerned that his continued inability to defeat the Tujue would cause suspicion on him because of the prophecies of a Li being the next emperor, he rebelled, wanting to distance himself from Emperor Yang while still claiming to be loyal to Sui, he claimed to support Yang You as emperor. Li Yuan then went to Chang'an, where Yang You had been in charge of since he was 8 in 613. The guardians of Chang'an, however, wanted to retain custody of Yang You, so Li had to breach the defenses of Chang'an. Li Yuan declared Yang You Emperor Gong, though Li Yuan held the imperial power.

The spring of 618 saw Li Mi attacking Luoyang, so Li Yuan sent troops led by two of his sons to aid the defense of Luoyang which led to the Sui forces refusing to recognize Li Yuan's sons' authority and refused contact with them, so they withdrew after briefly engaging with Li Mi's forces. Summer saw Li Yuan making Yang You abdicate in his favor, ending the Sui dynasty and beginning the Tang dynasty.

By Yan Liben - Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1971182

Goguryeo, a Korean kingdom that was located on the north-central parts of the Korean peninsula and the south-central parts of Northeast China, an area known as Manchuria, sent a messenger to Ashina Ragan when Emperor Yang was visiting in 607. Emperor Yang sent a message back to King Yeong-yang to invite him to visit, with a bribe for him to come and a threat of punishment if he didn't. By 611, King Yeong-yang still hadn't responded and Emperor Yang began a campaign against Goguryeo, a campaign that was met with disease and fatigue resulting in a lot of loss of life before it even started. Because of this, 'a number of conscripted soldiers deserted and became agrarian rebels'. During this, Ashina Daman who had replaced Ashina Ragan after his death, had refused to visit Emperor Yang and Emperor Yang encouraged his subordinate, Ashina Shegui, to overthrow Ashina Daman. After Ashina Daman fled, he submitted to Emperor Yang and was allowed to start a new group but was never allowed to return to his home people. In 612, Emperor Yang was able to gather enoough soldiers to attack Goguryeo, focusing on the cities of Liaodong, in modern day Liaoyang, and the capital of Pyongyang, now the capital of North Korea. Emperor Yang also decided he needed to approve all tactical decisions, which hampered the military efforts of the Chinese.

One tactic was to send the navy with an army arriving overland to support them. The navy arrived well before the land army arrived. The navy was defeated by ambush before the overland army could reach them and the resupply was also severely delayed, resulting in many soldiers aboard the ships dying of famine. The Sui naval ships were harried by feigned retreats after they were ambushed. When the overland army arrived, the Goguryeo army had set up an ambush for them and many died as the Goguryeo army pulled down a damn when the SUi army was in the middle of the Salsu River. Only 2,700 of 305,000 soldiers survived. The failed war resulted in no territory gained and great loss of life and money, as well as the broad support of the people for the government.

In 613, Emperor Yang undertook a second Goguryeo campaign, this time with an elite, specialized force, one that would become his personal guards. His attempts to conscript soldiers, however, resulted in more joining the agrarian rebels, which caused chaos in the north central part of the empire since the military commanders had little training and the rebels being largely unchecked. By the summer, Emperor Yang managed to gather enough of an army to lay siege to Manchuria, but he also received news that Yang Su's son rebelled near Luoyang. Yang Xuangan had the popular support. Emperor Yang called off the Goguryeo campaign and marched south to deal with the rebellion. With the general from Chang'an, he was able to put down Yang Xuangan's rebellion. Further south, south of the Yangtze, there were rebellions that the official Wang Shichong was able to put down.

In 614, Emperor Yang wanted another campaign against Goguryeo, and even though his officials thought it was a bad idea, 'none dared to oppose him'. In order to prevent desertions, he began executing deserters, but this did nothing to stop people from avoiding conscription by joining various rebel groups. Goguryeo offered a peace as they were also exhausted from the constant ambushing of the Sui army and supply lines. This peace only lasted until Emperor Yang sent another summons to King Yeong-yang which King Yeong-yang ignored again. Emperor Yang threatened a fourth campaign that never launched largely due to an increasing number of agrarian rebellions.

The spring of 615 brought rumors that Li Hun intended to replace Emperor Yang with his nephew Li Min, who was the emperor's nephew-in-law, the son-in-law of one of Emperor Yang's sisters, as the new emperor. There were 'prophecies that someone named Li would become the next emperor', so Emperor Yang executed Li Hun and his clansmen, including Li Min, and poisoned Li Min's wife, his niece.

Later, Emperor Yang took most of the imperial court, including Empress Xiao, on a tour of the northern provinces. Shibi Khan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, angered that an imperial advisor had promised his brother a princess and killed his advisor under false pretenses, attacked the Yanmen Commandery. His wife, a Shu princess named Princess Yicheng, sent information to the imperial court about his movements, so the imperial train was able to reach sanctuary at a commandery seat near modern day Daixian, Shanxi. They ended up under siege by Shibi Khan. During the siege, 'Emperor Yang became so fearful thata he cried all day long while holding onto his youngest son Yang Gao, the prince of Zhao'. One advisor suggested that he take his elite troops and fight his way out, but another suggested that he visit the soldiers personally to raise their morale by promising to no longer campaign against Goguryeo and that he'd reward them. Princess Yicheng told Shibi Khan that his people were under attack from the north and that Sui troops from Luoyang were going to arrive soon, so Shibi Khan ended the siege. Emperor Yang didn't come through on monetary rewards and was 'sparing in the promotion of the officers involved'.

It wasn't until the Lunar New Year of 616 that Emperor Yang appeared to become concerned with the rebels when more than 20 messengers from the commanderies didn't arrive because they'd been intercepted or killed. He began building a palace in Piling Commandery, near modern day Changzhou, south of the Yangtze River and another in Kuaiji Commandery, near Hangzhou Bay, both south of the Yangtze River to avoid the rebels. Despite this, he had an advisor who expressed concerns about the rebels accused of crimes and almost executed him, but ended up demoting him to a commoner. By the fall, Emperor Yang intended to go to Jiangdu at one of his advisor's suggestion even though many of his advisors were against this, since they thought it meant that Luoyang would end up falling to the rebels, which did happen with General Zhai Rang championing Li Mi, Yang Xuangan's former strategist, as the next emperor. Li Mi took the title Duke of Wei after they captured the food storage locations around Luoyang.

The Sui began to have some success against the rebels north of the Yellow River, but Emperor Yang began to fear the talent of the general, Yang Yichen, so he promoted him to a ministry position and recalled him. This allowed the rebels north of the Yellow River to recover. This also allowed many other rebellions, both localized and roaming, to gain traction.

By derivative work: Yug - File:East Asia topographic map.png by User:Ksiom, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5311435

The source of accusations that Yang Guang killed Emperor Wen was in the Tang dynasty that followed and there was 'no direct evidence' that he committed patricide to gain the throne. Song dynasty records indicate that 'Zhang Heng entered the Emperor's palace to attend to his medical needs. Zhang expelled all the ladies in waiting and the eunuchs. Soon thereafter, the Emperor died. Thereafter, there were different views as to how he died'. Another source states that Zhang said 'What did I do for him that I can expect to live long?' before his subsequent execution in 612, but that the 'warden, apparently believing in the murder theory himself, immediately covered his ears to avoid hearing any details and had Zhang immediately executed'. The official histories of the time, however, such as the Book of Sui and the History of Northern Dynasties, have no such allegations against Yang Guang in his or his father's biographies, nor in Zhang's, even though these accounts point out Emperor Yang's misrule. There is also the circumstantial evidence that Liu Shu, minister of defense, and Yuan Yan, court administrator, who would have known that Emperor Wen called for Yang Yong before his death and were supposedly falsely arrested lived after the incident rather than being put to death for knowing the truth. This could be countered by the claim that the two more contemporary accounts were a 'more conservatively-worded version of the attempted rape and murder accusation…[and] did not directly accuse Emperor Yang of patricide'. At this late a date, 'the truth might never be known'.

Regardless, Emperor Yang came to power on 21 August 604 and immediately had to deal with a rebellion his brother, Yang Liang, began at the behest of two generals and supported by 19 provinces, though they lacked a plan whether to fully overthrown Emperor Yang or just set up their own empire north of the Yellow River. After some initial success, Yang Liang's rebellion stalled and Yang Su was able to infiltrate Yang Liang's headquarters, forcing a surrender. Yang Liang was reduced to a commoner and imprisoned rather than executed.

In the winter of 604, Emperor Yang moved the capital from Chang'an to Luoyang when a sorcerer advised him that Chang'an wouldn't be good for his health. Luoyang had to be rebuilt, including conscripting 'several hundred thousands of young men to dig a lengthy trench to surround the Luoyang region, intending that it serve as a defensive perimeter'. He also changed the head tax, or a fixed amount that each person was liable for without considering their income, so that women and servants would be exempt from it and also made it so that men wouldn't be considered adults, and thus conscriptable, until they were 21. He began building the palace in 605 and a canal to connect the Yellow and Huai Rivers known as the Tongji Canal, which also connected Luoyang with the Yellow River, and rebuilding the Han Canal, which connected the Huai and Yangtze Rivers. These would be constructed in five months, at great cost of life, up to half of all those who worked on them. They would also become a part of the Grand Canal of China, linking North and East China with the South.

Once the canals were complete, Emperor Yang began his first tour of the empire of 11, including military campaigns, he would eventually undertake. He went to Jiangdu on an 'imperial ship that was said to be sufficiently large and luxurious to serve as floating palaces'. He also undertook a campaign against the Khitan tribes who attacked Ying Province, near modern day Zhaoyang, Liaoning.

In 606, the Crown Prince became ill and died and Emperor Yang wouldn't create another Crown Prince, though he initially elevated the Crown Prince's sons to imperial princes, apparently tacitly preferring the second son, Yang Jian, as he left him in charge of Luoyang when he was away. Yang Su also died in 606, relieving Emperor Yang of an ally he 'pretended to respect but actually feared'.

The summer of 607 saw Emperor Yang changing provinces to commanderies and reorganizing the five bureaus his father established, keeping four of them and reorganizing the eunuch bureau and replacing it with the palace bureau. He reorganized the imperial army into 16 corps while also eliminating three noble titles, keeping only three. He also visited Ashina Ragan, who made a show of submitting to him, resulting in Emperor Yang giving Ashina Ragan much wealth and honor. Three of Emperor Yang's senior officials disapproved of this and Emperor Yang had them put to death. He removed another official from his post for discouraging the excessive rewards to Ashina Ragan. He also removed his brother-in-law, the former emperor of the Western Liang, from his post for rumors that the Xiao clan wanted to rise again.

In 608, he conscripted over 1,000,000 men to bring the Yongji Canal from the Yellow River to the Zhuo Commandery, about where modern day Beijing is. Apparently, there were not enough men, so women were conscripted to the work as well. He also apparently received a letter from Emperor Duolisibigu of Japan, now thought to be Prince Shoutoku, a semi-legendary regent and served under Empress Suiko, that said 'The Son of Heaven where the sun rises, to the son of Heaven where the sun sets, may good health be with you', which he found 'insolent'. He ordered that no more 'insolent' letters be delivered to him. Relationships with Yang Jian deteriorated during this time over various issues from women to hunting. Emperor Yang ordered investigations into Yang Jian and his associates, which revealed Yang Jian had cursed Yang Zhao's three sons. While Emperor Yang executed many of Yang Jian's associates, he didn't depose Yang Jian, but Yang Jian lost his influence over politics.

By Yan Li-pen - Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1971153

The Sui dynasty was founded by Yang Jian, a member of Northern Zhou military aristocracy and of both Han and Xianbei descent. He worked closely with the Norther Zhou imperial court and his daughter married then Crown Prince Yuwen Yun who would be come Emperor Xuan and Lady Yang would become empress in 578, even though Emperor Xuan distrusted his father-in-law, despite making him minister of defense. In 579, Emperor Xuan retired and his son with a concubine Consort Zhu Manyue became Emperor Jing even though the retired Emperor Xuan continued to exercise imperial powers. Emperor Xuan threatened to 'slaughter your clan' and summoned Yang Jian, ordering his guards to kill Yang Jian if 'his [Yang Jian] expression revealed any sign of concern', but Yang Jian didn't express any emotion, so he survived.

In 581, Emperor Xuan intended to send Yang Jian out for a military campaign, but he died before Yang Jian could leave. Two of Emperor Xuan's 'close associates' summoned Yang Jian to serve as regent for the still underage Emperor Jing, who was about 8 at the time. The two associates issued a decree in Emperor Xuan's name to appoint Yang Jian regent instead of Emperor Xuan's uncle. As regent, Yang worked on making the government more frugal. He also had to deal with the uncle, who refused to come to the capital when summoned. He commanded several of the generals that supported him to defeat the uncle and this was accomplished within 68 days, with the uncle then committing suicide.

Because of a number of assassination attempts, Yang Jian began killing various family members in the Yuwen clan, including princes Yuwan Xian and Yuwan Zhao, their brothers and their sons, eventually killing 59 of them. During this time, he had Emperor Jing grant him more titles and then had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him later in 581. The Sui name was chosen as it was the old fief name, though he altered the character from 隨 to 隋 by removing the 辶, or 'walking' radical, which he saw as removing the impermanence of his regime. He took the throne as Emperor Wen.

During the beginning of his reign, Emperor Wen shifted allegiance from Confucianism to 'the group advocating Legalism and authoritarian government'. He reorganized the government from six departments to five bureaus, two independent agencies, twelve military commands, and eleven other independent departments. He also had the penal code simplified and reduced the penalties resulting from harsh laws, 'a reform that was later largely accepted by subsequent dynasties'. He also abolished the anti-Han policies, instead highlighting his own Han ancestry and Han culture. He improved the infrastructure of the country, including establishing granaries and using them 'as sources of food and as a means to regulate market prices from the taxation of crops, much like the earlier Han dynasty'. This surplus also allowed for rapid population growth. He moved the capital to Chang'an and began constructing the Grand Canal, linking Chang'an to the Yellow River, which would be enlarged by his son.

He embarked on a massive naval construction project, assembling thousands of boats, including ones that had 'five layered decks and the capacity for 800 non-crew personnel[…]outfitted with six 50-foot-long booms that were used to swing and damage enemy ships, or to pin them down so that Sui marine troops could use act-and-board techniques', on the Yangtze. Along with 518,000 troops, he set out to conquer the Chen dynasty in 588. By 589, he completed the conquest of Chen by razing Jiankang, reunifying China under a single dynasty.

The application of Sui laws was resented by the former Chen gentry as they lost their preferential treatment that they'd enjoyed under previous dynasties. Rumors began to spread that Emperor Wen intended to move those living in previously Chen-controlled territory to Guanzhong in 590, which resulted in disorganized rebellions that were suppressed within a year. In 593, he began the construction of a summer palace outside of Chang'an, which was completed 2 years later and was 'more luxurious than expected and caused many deaths during its construction'. Also in 595, he had an abbreviated ceremony at Mount Tai at the behest of the Crown Prince, worshiping the heaven and earth gods to 'seek blessings for the ongoing drought'.

In 597, one of his sons, Yang Jun, had been poisoned by his wife, Princess Cui, and during his recovery in Chang'an, Emperor Wen found out that he'd been wasteful, so Emperor Wen removed him from his post and stripped him of all his offices, only allowing him to keep the imperial prince title. Some officials suggested this was too harsh, to which Emperor Wen responded I am the father of just five sons, not the father of all people over the land. If I agreed with you, does that mean I have to draft a Penal Code for the Emperor's Sons? Even a man as kind as the Duke of Zhou executed his brothers, the lords of Guan and Cai, for their crimes. I am nowhere as capable as the Duke of Zhou, so I can break my own laws?'

He also married the daughter of Ashina Rangan, one of the Göktürks' chiefs, and offered him treasure to try and break the ties between Ashina Rangan and Ashina Yongyulü in 597. This did result in Ashina Ragan giving Emperor Wen a heads up to his movements, which allowed Emperor Wen to prepare his forces. In 598, the Goguryeo, in modern day North Korea and Northeast China, began attacking Ying Province. He sent one of his sons to deal with this, but the campaign had to deal with multiple issues, including a major storm that caused losses to the navy and food shortages. Goguryeo was able to inflict heavy damages on the Sui, but they also stopped raiding China. Emperor Wen called back the campaign since Sui couldn't afford to commit any more resources to it.

Yang Yong, the Crown Prince, began to lose favor with both Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu since he was 'overly wasteful and [had] too many concubines'. They considered Yang Guang as his replacement. Toward the end of 600, Yang Guang and Yang Su, with the unspoken support of Empress Dugu, had one of Yang Yong's associates accuse him of treason, for which he was deposed. In 602, Empress Dugu died. Yang Guang thought Yang Xiu intended to cause a problem for his position as Crown Prince, so he had Yang Su collect evidence of his wastefulness to present to Emperor Wen. Yang Guang also claimed that Yang Xiu had cursed the emperor. As a result, Yang Xiu was stripped of all rank, becoming a commoner, and was put under house arrest.

By Ian Kiu - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2944503

In the south, there were four dynasties during the same time, beginning with the Liu Song dynasty in 420. They all continued to use the Eastern Jin capital of Jiankang. Until the Chen dynasty, the politics of the dynasties were dominated by the great families, the class that Cao Cao created at the end of the Han dynasty as he was consolidating his own power by creating professional soldiers. These great families tended to fight with each other, making it difficult for any one ruler to bring the other families in line. To help keep their power, these families began to compile genealogies and outlawed intermarriage with commoners. Northerners who migrated south 'were forced to become "guests" (dependents) of the great families who established private guard forces with their new retainers'. Despite this, the rulers of the four dynasties were 'military leaders from lowly social backgrounds', who would erode the power of the great families, transferring that power to the central government. This shift was aided by the rise of trade on the Indian Ocean, which further eroded their power so that the class was essentially gone by the end of this period and their position at the top was taken by merchants, who were able to move wealth more easily in an increasingly money-based economy. This shift also pushed peasants towards being mercenary soldiers to cope with inflation or paying taxes and pushed the land holding aristocracy to break up their holdings and sell them off.

Liu Yu began as a general in the Army of the Northern Garrison for the Eastern Jin dynasty and gained a reputation for himself by suppressing a Taoist rebel and then leading the efforts that restored Emperor An of Jin to his throne, which launched him to prominence in the imperial court. He then led two expeditions north against the Southern Yan and Later Qin dynasties, continued putting down popular uprisings, and purged his rivals, many of whom were his allies, to gain even more prominence. He then invoked a prophecy that 'there would only be one more emperor after Emperor An' and had Emperor An replaced with Emperor Gong and then deposed him in 420, taking the throne as Emperor Wu of Liu Song. After they were deposed, he then killed them and their families, an action that would set the tone for the rest of the era. He died in 422 and his son Emperor Shao would take his place for a short time before he was killed by governmental officials for incompetence, leading to one of his brothers, Emperor Wen, taking the throne. When he did, Emperor Wen killed those officials who had supported his rise. He was, like his father had been, and he was an adept administrator, so his reign was relatively stable. Despite this, his military expeditions into the north in 430 floundered because of micromanagement of the generals, insufficient preparations, which led to a weakening of the dynasty overall. His jealousy of Tan Daoji, a general holding the same position his father had, caused him to chose another, weaker general to lead the army, allowing the north to keep them from reclaiming lands between the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. After these conflicts, Emperor Wen suffered a long illness and his brother, Liu Yikang, the prime minister, had Tan Daoji, his sons, and two of his generals killed on false charges of treason. Beginning in 445, the Northern Wei pushed the Liu Song further south, leading Emperor Wen to lament the loss of Tan Daoji.

In 453, Emperor Wen was assassinated by his sons Princes Shao and Jun before he could punish them for witchcraft. Their brother, also named Jun, would defeat them to become Emperor Xiaowu, though he was 'licentious and cruel, supposedly committing incest with the daughters of an uncle who helped him gain the throne; his rivals also claimed he had incest with his mother'. He died of natural causes in 464 and was followed by his son Emperor Qianfei who 'proved to be similar to his father, engaging in both kin-slaughter and incest'. To appease one of his sisters who 'complained about how it was unfair that men were allowed 10,000 concubines, he gave her 30 handsome young men as lovers'. He would be assassinated by his uncle Liu Yu, who became Emperor Ming.

After killing all of Emperor Xiaowu's descendants, Emperor Ming would lose the provinces north of the Huai River because of his paranoia. His son would become Emperor Houfei would become the next emperor during a time of great turmoil with General Xiao Daocheng gaining power. Xiao Daocheng could depose Emperor Houfei and install Emperor Houfei's brother as Emperor Shun. After gaining enough power by defeating another general, Xiao Daoicheng forced Emperor Shun to grant him the throne, ending the Liu Song in 479.

Xiao Daocheng would be known as Emperor Gao of the Southern Qi dynasty. His low social origins would draw the disdain of the nobility, though he did follow the pattern of the early rulers of the Liu Song, being very economical. He died after only four years on the throne, leading to his 13 year old son inheriting the throne. Emperor Wu was able to make peace with the Northern Wei to protect the borders, which led to a period of peace. His grandsons would inherit as his eldest son died before him. Their reigns were short as they were deposed and killed by their granduncle who became Emperor Ming. Emperor Ming would undertake the slaughter of all of Emperor Gao and Wu's sons. When he became ill, he turned to Daoism, changed his wardrobe to red, and had his officials try to find 'whitebait', immature fry of fish that are between 25-50 mm long. His death in 498 and being followed by his son Xio Baojuan, 'who killed high-ranking officials and governors on a whim', caused multiple revolts, including the one that killed him in 501. He was followed by Xiao Baorong, who would be a puppet to Xiao Yan, brother to Xiao Baojuan's prime minister and distant relation to the Southern Qi dynasty.

Xiao Yan would overthrow Emperor He in 502 and begin the Liang dynasty as Emperor Wu. He was 'economical, worked hard at governing, and cared for the common people' and grew the military strength so that it would surpass the Northern Wei, undertaking an invasion in 503. He was lenient towards his clansmen, avoiding investigating them even if they did commit crimes. He supported scholars, encouraged a flourishing education system, and rewarded literary talent. This was considered a cultural peak, but it wouldn't last as sycophants would surround him. He attempted to become a Buddhist monk three times, but those around him convinced him to return to court by making 'extravagant court donations to Buddhism'. He also failed to notice that 'nearly half the population fraudulently named themselves as such [Buddhist or Daoist]' to take advantage of a law that made them exempt from taxes, which, when combined with the imperial clan's greed and wastefulness, resulted in finances becoming shambles in his later reign. Emperor Wu gave refuge to generals from Northern Wei, including Hou Jing. Hou Jing was sent on a campaign against the Northern Wei, which ended with a decisive loss, leading some to suggest that Emperor Wu intended Hou Jing to be returned to and punished by the Norther Wei after deserting. Hou Jing believed this despite Emperor Wu assuring him it wasn't true. He rebelled and set siege to Jiankang with Emperor Wu trapped in the capitol. Emperor Wu was forced to try to negotiate, but Hou Jing was displeased with what was offered, so he captured the palace, which resulted in the slaughter of nearby populaces. Emperor Wu starved to death and Hou Jing used two princes as puppets before he seized power, though all he controlled was Jiankang. Xiao Yi, with the aid of two generals, defeated Hou Jing and became Emperor Yuan, though his brother, Xiao Ji, was still a threat to his crown. Emperor Yuan asked the Western Wei for aid, but a diplomatic mistake caused him to be deposed and killed by Yuwen Tai, a leading general of the Western Wei. The Northern Qi also wanted Liang land and fought against the Western Wei, claiming to do so at the behest of Emperor Yuan's cousin, setting up his last surviving son, Xiao Fangzhi, as ruler, though not with imperial titles. The Norther Qi were defeated and Xiao Yuanming took the throne as Emperor Min of Liang, but was deposed with Xiao Fangzhi becoming Emperor Jing. He was shortly deposed by Chen Baxian.

By Ian Kiu - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3141311

The Northern and Southern dynasties period is the last of a larger period known as the Six Dynasties, which lasted from 220-589 CE and was fraught with civil wars and political chaos that both caused and resulted from the various wars. During this time, culture, technology, and the arts flourished and Buddhism and Taoism spread widely through both dynasties. This period also saw the increased rate of sinicization, the assimilation of Chinese culture including language, culture, societal norms, and ethnic identity, in among the non-Han peoples of both dynasties.

Beginning in 439 with the unification of the north under the Northern Wei under Emperor Taiwu, they still had to deal with the Rouran Khaganate, a tribal confederation that were likely multi-ethnic, to the north of them, which pulled their focus from moving further south in their effort to reunify all of China. It wasn't until 450 that they were able to attack the Liu Song dynasty to the south, managing to conquer as far as Guabu, modern day Nanjing, and threatened Jiankang, the Liu Song capital, across the Yangtze River, but because of heavy casualties, they plundered Guabu as they returned north.

As they were returning north, followers of Gai Wu, a Buddhist, rebelled, which led to the Taoist government to persecute Buddhism, the first of what would come to be known as the Three Disasters of Wu, so-called because the emperors that initiated them had the character Wu 武 in their temple or posthumous names, and occurred between 446-846. Because of Emperor Taiwu's cruelty at the end of his life, he was killed by a eunuch in 452, which led to a period of turmoil until Emperor Wengchen, Emperor Taiwu's grandson, took the throne and he formally ended the persecution of Buddhism. In a few short decades, Luoyang would boast over 1,000 Buddhist temples serving a population of nearly half a million.

The ruling clan, the Tuoba family, were ethnically Xianbei, a tribe that 'dominated northern China [and] kept a policy of strict social distinction between them and their Han subjects'. The Han were welcome in the bureaucracy, but were not welcome in higher positions of power, and were a minority in the capital and other centers of power. Emperor Xianwen, who ruled from 465-471 when he retired and passed the throne to his 4 year old son Emperor Xiaowen, began his rule under the regency of his Han Chinese stepmother, Empress Dowager Wenming, who would also act as regent for his son. She passed many reforms, introducing the equal-field system, a type of land ownership that weakened the aristocratic clans while strengthening the 'emerging landlord class based on self-cultivating farmers', that increased both tax revenues and agricultural output. When she died in 490, Emperor Xiaowen continued her efforts at reformation and weakening position of the Xianbei nobility. He even changed the name of his clan from Tuoba 拓跋 to Yuan 元, a Chinese name, and encouraged other noble families to adopt single-character surnames in the style of the Han, banned Xianbei clothing from court, required Han style clothing, requiring those under 30 to learn Chinese, and encouraged the high ranking Xianbei to intermarry with Han Chinese. He moved the capital to Luoyang from Pingcheng in 495, which brought many Xianbei to the south as they followed the court.

In 523, food shortages in the far northern part of the Norther Wei empire would lead to the Rebellion of the Six Garrisons, with another following between 526-527 resulting from the growing rift between the Han Chinese sedentary lifestyle and the nomadic tribal lifestyle of the Xianbei and those who wanted to preserve that lifestyle. Gao Huan, working with Emperor Xiaojing as his puppet, held Luoyang in 534 and his rival Yuwen Tain controlled Chang'an by 535. Gao Yang, Gao Huan's son, would later force the emperor to abdicate in 551, forming the Norther Qi dynasty as Emperor Wenxuan. In 557, Yuwen Jue, Yuwen Tai's son, would take the throne as Emperor Xiaomin of the Northern Zhou dynasty.

The more easterly of these two, the Northern Qi, would hold lands that supplied 5/6 of the Northern Wei army, consisting of Han military families and steppe tribesmen, who had families, women as well as men, that were adept at riding horses and expert archers. The Northern Zhou reverted to Xianbei warrior culture, reversing many of the sincization policies and practices of the Northern Wei, including taking back their Xianbei names and clothing—trousers, tunics, and boots. They used their tribalization policies to help them recruit Han Chinese by granting tax exemptions for recruits that could provide their own equipment, which was 'highly successful in boosting the state's military strength'. The Northern Zhou were able to reunify the north in 577, but were overthrown in 581 by Yang Jian, who would became Emperor Wen of Sui.

By SY - CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=143573036

The division of the Yan and their foothold on the Central Plains allowed the Northern Wei to become a regional power in the northeastern part of China. In 409, the new emperor, Emperor Mingyuan, decided to focus on stabilizing the state. The next emperor, Emperor Taiwu, would focus on unifying northern China when he took the throne in 423. He captured the Helian Xia capital Tongwancheng, at the southern edge of the Maowusu Sands of the Ordos Desert now though strategically important at the time, as well as their emperor. The Helian Xia emperor's brother tried to continue the resistance after taking the throne, pushing westward to help continue this resistance continue, conquering the Western Qin in 431, but his attempt to invade the Northern Liang the same year failed and he was captured in a raid and became a prisoner of the Northern Wei. This allowed the Northern Wei to focus on the Northern Yan. The Northern Wei had the resources to launch 'incessant attacks on their border' and the Northern Yan fell in 436. The Northern Liang was the last remaining of the Sixteen Kingdoms. They had a marriage alliance with the Northern Wei, but the Northern Wei accused them of planning a rebellion so they laid siege to the capital of Northern Liang in 439 and the Northern Liang soon surrendered, ending the Sixteen Kingdoms era.

During the chaos in the northern China, the Eastern Jin attempted to reclaim all the territory they'd lost when the Western Jin fell. They'd regularly send military campaigns against the various kingdoms, including recapturing lands south of the Yellow River after the fall of the Former Qin, even though they lot some of those lands later, such as when they were defeated, only to be recaptured later on. Support for the campaigns in the north waned, however, as the royal family was riddled with paranoia and instability, leading to frequent disruptions to the throne. There were also multiple military rebellions and revolts internally throughout the Eastern Jin's 104 year long existence. Further destabilizing the Eastern Jin was the number of northern immigrants and refugees that arrived, with the aristocratic clans being especially hostile. This rivalry became a large focus of the domestic politics of the Eastern Jin, though that the northern derived noble clans would also argue with each other helped maintain a balance that favored the emperor and the two groups would eventually merge with the 'southern Chinese aristocracy [being] formed from the offspring of these migrants'.

By SY - CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=143573035

From the fall of the Former Qin, Yao Chang fought to control the area of the Guanzhong until his death in 394. Shortly after, his son Yao Xing would complete that task, ushering in the Later Qin dynasty. He oversaw a 'period of relative peace and prosperity', and had several of the neighboring states offering him submission, such as the Later Liang and Western Qin, and conquered as far as Luoyang. He established Confucian schools in Chang'an, which attracted scholars from many regions, and was a devout Buddhist, spreading the religion and having the state support it. He sponsored a Chinese translation of Buddhist sutras, texts, and treatises into Chinese from Sanskrit. A type of Buddhism known as Mahayana Buddhism, which 'refers to the path of the bodhisattva [a person who has attained, or is striving towards Buddhahood] strving to become fully awakened to buddha for the benefit of all sentient beings, and is thus also called the "Bodhisattva Vehicle"' with the path being available to all beings that took the bodhisattva vow, which 'can be done by venerating all Buddhas and by cultivating supreme moral and spiritual perfection, to bbe placed in the service of others. In particular, bodhisattvas promice to practice the six perfections of giving, moral discipline, patience, effort, concentration and wisdom in order to fulfill their bodhicitta [a mind that is aimed at awakening] aim of attaining buddhahood for the sake of all beings'. Most of the Later Qin population would follow Buddhist teachings. The tribes on the Ordos Plateau submitted to the Later Qin to avoid being taken over by the Northern Wei, not one of the Sixteen Kingdoms but an imperial Dynasty of the Tabgach-Xianbei tribe, and the Later Qin used them as a buffer against those further north. The Later Qin would undertake retaliatory campaigns the Northern Wei after repeated raids on the northern tribes, but a defeat at the batte of Chaibi in 402 resulted in stagnation and peace talks with the Northern Wei. These peace talks resulted in the Tiefu-Xiongnu tribe rebelling and founding their own state. The on-going war would tax the Later Qin's resources and power. Yao Xing's vassals began do as they wished, reducing his power over them. He died in 416, leaving his heir to contend with his relatives over the throne and by 417, the Eastern Jin had conquered them.

Gansu, west of the territory controlled by the Later Qin, was fought over by multiple states. The Later Liang tried to take over from the Western Qin, but were defeated in 397 when they tried to invade Western Qin. This caused a Xianbei chieftain to break away and found the Southern Liang state, which would last from 397-414. A Chinese governor would also break away and found the Northern Liang, which would last from 397-439. In 400, a Chinese general in the Northern Liang state would rebel and found the Western Liang state, which would last until 421. The following year, the Northern Liang would be taken over by the Western Liang. The four Liang territories would be nominally forced into submission in 401 and the Later Liang would surrender what remained of their territory to the Later Qin in 403. The Southern Liang would break from the Later Qin in 409 and then suffer heavy losses in the battles against the Western Qin, who'd broken from the Later Qin at the same time the Southern Liang broke away, and fell to them. The Western Liang would pacify the Western Qin in 421. This left the Western Qin and the Northern Liang remaining. The Western Qin would fall in 431, leaving the Northern Liang in control over Gansu.

By SY - CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=143487000

Not all the noble families and officials that fled the fall of the Western Jin dynasty went south. Some of them, such as Zhang Gui and his family, went to the north-most part of China, the Gansu region for Zhang Gui. They played lip service to being loyal to the Eastern Jin, their distance from the Eastern Jin and their not taking an imperial title, except for Zhang Zuo who ruled from 353-355, gave them free reign to govern as they wished. Because of this, historians have called them the 'Former Liang' and they existed from 301-376, preserving the Han literati culture where government officials and scholars formed the same social class and influenced the Qixi region, the western part of China beyond the Yumen Pass. They fell due to infighting over the throne after the then 10 year old Zhang Yaoling inherited it in 353 and then were forced to submit to the Former Qin.

Another group that professed allegiance to the Eastern Jin were the Murong clan, Xianbei people ethnically, but also vied for independence to be a dynasty. The accepted Chinese refugees and employed many of them as officials within their civil administration. In 337, still professing allegiance, Murong Huang declared himself a prince and began the Former Yan, which would continue until 370 and conquer the Duan and Yuwen tribes and forced submission from the Goguryeo and the Buyeo, making it one of the larger of the Sixteen Kingdoms. Murong Jun, who would become Emperor Jingzhao of Former Yan, took that title in 353. After his death in 360, his then 10 year old son took the throne with his uncle Murong Ke acting as regent after he declined becoming emperor. When Murong Ke died in 367, 'unbridled corruption among the aristocracy and infighting within the imperial family became evident and rapidly worsened'.

By SY - CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=143282724

After the fall of the Western Jin, China broke into multiple parts with the Eastern Jin continuing in the south and the northern part overrun by the non-Han Chinese people of the steppe, such as the Xianbei confederation and the Xiongnu, so much so that the Jin government moved to Jiankang, near modern day Nanjing, south of the Yangtze River. Many of the Sixteen Kingdoms were founded by the non-Han peoples, especially by those considered the Five Barbarians—the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Di, Jie, and Qiang—though many of these had been part of China for generations and were therefore highly sinicized, especially the Xiongnu who lived in Shanxi and the Di who lived in Guanzhong. Others, such as several tribes of the Xianbei, had migrated from China to the Central Plains in order to take advantage of the chaos and claim the Mandate of Heaven to rule China. Those that were able to gain control over territory took Han dynastic names to further cement their claims. These courts were plagued with internal political instability and fierce competitiveness between them.

The beginning of the Sixteen Kingdoms is considered to be 304, when Li Xiong claimed an imperial title and founded the Cheng-Han in southwestern China, the only one of the Sixteen Kingdoms to be based there, in open rebellion against the Jin. The Chen-Han would last until 347 The Han-Zhao, founded by Liu Yuan, was declared to be a restoration of the former Han dynasty, which was viewed as a 'golden age' for China even then. They would go on to conquer the capital of Luoyang and kill Emperor Huai, and would later capture Chang'an and kill Emperor Min, the last of the Western Jin rulers.

In the south, Sima Rui, who would be known as Emperor Yuan of Jin would found the Eastern Jin and continuing the Jin dynasty took the throne in 318. The Eastern Jin government waas dominated by menfa politics, where the power of the emperors was limited in favor of the gentry clans, many of them immigrant clans, truly controlled the affairs of the country. They launched multiple campaigns to try and reclaim the lands that were lost when the Western Jin fell and were able, for a time, to regain the land between the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers, though some were lost and then regained. While they had some successes, the Eastern Jin also dealt with disruptions to the throne and paranoia within the royal family, which caused some of its military expeditions to fail which may have contributed to military crises and rebellions. In addition to all of this, there were tensions between the southerners and those who had migrated from the north with the southern locals becoming dominant initially and eventually replaced by northerners as the northern Chinese aristocrats moved south at different times. The Eastern Jin dynasty would last from 317 to 420.

While Emperor Huai was more competent than Emperor Hui, Sima Yue continued to exercise a great deal of power in the capital and country. There were still a number of on-going rebellions through the empire that needed to be resolved, brought about by the instability of the government and a series of famines. One of rebellions was led by Wang Mi who was able to lay siege to Luoyang in 308. While this rebellion was eventually put down, the survivors fled north of the Yellow River and joined the state of Han along with those under Shi Le under Liu Yuan, who would later be known as Emperor Guangwen of Han-Zhao. In 309, Sima Yue killed Emperor Huai's favorite courtiers, replaced the palace guards with his own soldiers, and took most of the capital's defensive forces with him when he left Luoyang to repulse an incursion by the Han resulting from a severe famine that also affected Luoyang's area. Emperor Huai objected to the defensive forces being so weak, but Sima Yue didn't listen to his concerns and left the emperor 'under the watch of Yue's hand-picked confidants'.

This was the breaking point for Emperor Huai and he sought out Gou Xi, Sima Yue's second-in-command who had also had a falling out with Sima Yue, to plan a way to depose Sima Yue. Sima Yue found out about their plans. Sima Yue intended to attack Gou Xi but 'was so overwhelmed by stress that he grew ill and soon died on 23 April 311. Want Yan, Sima Yue's minister was hastily chosen to lead the imperial army, which numbered about 100,000. They were determined to have Sima Yue's funeral at his territory in Donghai, but they were attacked by Shi Le, who would later be nown as Emperor Ming of Later Zhao, at the Battle of Ningping. After the battle, '[t]he imperial army was annihilated, and the bodies of officials and soldiers were piled atop one another in a mound as not a single one had been able to escape'. After this overwhelming victory, Shi Le marched on to Luoyang, which was barely defended and weakened because of famine. Emperor Huai was captured on 13 July 311.

By Zangxuangao - Own work, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=165046586

Sima Yong tried to resolve conflict between him and Sima Yue by appointing Sima Yue as the Grand Tutor, but Sima Yue refused the position, though the two did seem to reach an agreement. Sima Yue's brothers, Sima Lüe and Sima Mo, were made commanders in the military, with Sima Lüe over Luoyang and Sima Mo over Ji province. Because much of the empire had suffered because of warfare and rebellions, Sima Yong 'issued an edict encouraging everyone to settle for peace'. Later, he made himself the Commander of the entire imperial military.

The court was split, with Emperor Hui in the Western Court of Chang'an while most of his ministers wee in the Eastern Court of Luoyang. In the Eastern Court, Yang Xianrong was again made empress, though she was later deposed again. Hangfu Zhong sent his son, Hangfu Chang to Sima Yue in a bid to gain reinforcements in his fight against Sima Yong, but Sima Yue denied him, likely because he and Sima Yong were getting along again. Unhappy with this response, Huangfu Chang forged an edict that showed Sima Yue supported his plan. He restored Yang Xianrong again and then claimed that she told the officials there in Luoyang to attack Zhang Fang in order to return the emperor to Luoyang. The officials were willing, at first, to do so, but after learning that Huangfu Chang had forged the edict they killed Huangfu Chang. Huangfu Zhong was killed soon after by the people of Jicheng, who then surrendered. Once more, Yang Xianrong was deposed.

In about August of 305, Sima Yue started gathering allies in the eastern parts of the empire, with the goal of returning Emperor Hui to Luoyang, blaming Zhang Fang had forced him to Chang'an and Sima Yong. His brothers, Sima Xiao, and Wang Jun were among his allies and he started handing out appointments without going through the emperor. In the east, only Liu Qiao, a general and inspector in the Yu province, and Sima Mao, a grandson of Sima Yi's brother and self-declared inspector in Yan province, sided with Sima Yong because Sima Yue tried to remove them from their respective positions in about September 305. Some joined with Sima Yue because Sima Yong removed Sima Ying from power.

As Sima Yue gathered more soldiers and marched toward Chang'an and Sima Yong, Sima Yong put Zhang Fant in charge of 100,000 troops to support those who were trying to block Sima Yue's forces advances. Sima Yue suffered some early setbacks, so he sent Chan Min to gather more forces, but Chen Min rebelled instead. Luoyang also faced a rebellion that saw Yang Xianrong declared empress once more and then, once the rebellion was quashed, deposed again. Sima Yong forged an edict from Emperor Hui to have Yang Xianrong killed to remover her as a political pawn. Liu Tun, among others, objected and after Sima Yong was unable to arrest Liu Tun, he rescinded the order.

After multiple battles in several locations, Sima Yong was desperate for peace with Sima Yue, but Zhang Fang encouraged him to keep fighting. Rather than listening to him, Sima Yong had Zhang Fang executed and sent his head to Sima Yue with a peace offer. Sima Yue refused the offer and used Zhang Fang's head to convince Sima Yong's generals to turn on him or surrender. Sima Yong was unable to stop Sima Yue's advance, so he fled to Mount Taibai while Chang'an was sacked. on 11 June 306, the emperor was returned to Luoyang, arriving on 28 June. shortly afterward, Sima Yong recaptured Chang'an, but didn't hold any other territory.

By 偰 循setsu, jun - Waseda University Library, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=148031650

The death of Sima Ai left Sima Ying in the position of regent and he appointed himself Prime Minister and Sima Yue to President of State Secretariat. Sima Ying returned to his territory of Ye while he kept Emperor Hui in Luoyang with an army of 50,000 under the leadership of Shi Chao. He imprisoned Empress Yang Xianrong in April 304, as well as deposing Sima Tan from Crown Prince. He had himself installed as Crown Prince on 1 May 304 and his power was compared to that of Cao Cao at the end of the Han dynasty, becoming more brazen about his extravagances and in his inclination toward favoritism after this, which lost him some supporters. Sima Yong was appointed to Grand Governor and Grand Commander at the same time.

Sima Yue and his three brothers, second cousins to Emperor Wu, were known for their integrity and talent. Sima Yue had close ties to several prominent families as well as multiple high-ranking offices. on 17 August 304, Sima Yue entered into open rebellion, freeing Empress Yang Xianrong and restoring her and Sima Tan to their positions. Shi Chao and others fled to Ye. Sima Yue was able to gather an army of 100,000 as he marched toward Ying's capital with the emperor and Sima Tan traveling with him. He was told along the way that Ye's forces had dispersed, so he wasn't prepared when Shi Chao's army confronted him on 9 September 304 in what would come to be known as the Battle of Dangyin. Sima Yue survived the defeat and fled back to his fief in Donghal. Shi Chao captured the emperor, who'd been wounded in the battle. The rest of Sima Yue's allies retreated to Luoyang along with Sima Tan.

After Sima Yue's defeat, Sima Ying wanted to eliminate Wang Jun, the Chief Controller of You province and supporter of Empress Jia because he refused to join the coalition to go against Sima Lun. Sima Ying sent an assassin after Wang Jun, but Wang Jun found out about it and allied himself with Sima Teng, Sima Yue's younger brother and one of the three that was known for integrity, the Inspector of Bing. Wang Jun's army consisted largely of Xianbei and Wuhuan soldiers, forming alliances with the tribes that neighbored his territory. Sima Ying sent out generals to deal with Wang Jun's army.

During this time, Sima Yong sent his general Zhang Fang to help Sima Ying, but when Zhang Fang found out that Emperor Hui was in Ye, he redirected his forces to Luoyang to occupy the capital. Sima Tan and his general Shangguan Si were holding it, though Shangguan Si held the real power. Shangguan Si tried to meet Zhang Fang's forces outside the city, but they were pushed back into the city. Sima Tan led his own troops against Shangguan Si one night and was able to force Shangguan Si out of the city. After gaining control of the city, he invited Zhang Fang into the city, though Zhang Fang would later depose him and Empress Yang Xianrong again.

One of Sima Ying's generals was Liu Yuan, a noble of the Xiongnu confederation, saw an opportunity in the princes' ongoing civil war, so he convinced Sima Ying that he could recruit more soldiers, but once he was with the Xiongnu, he convinced them to rebel. He was proclaimed the Grand Chanyu, or leader, and then King of Han, gathering over 50,000 soldiers, which would continue to grow as Chinese peasants and other non-Chinese tribes joined with them in their resentment of the Jin because of civil wars and ongoing famines.

During this, Wang Jun and Sima Teng continued to march toward Ye, defeating Shi Chao's army at Pingji, in modern day Zhao County. The people of Ye began fleeing as enemy forces marched on their borders. Sima Ying was advised to use his remaining 15,000 soldiers to return Emperor Hui to Luoyang, but on the day of their departure, all the troops deserted with their horses and porters. Sima Ying and Emperor Hui were forced to flee in a cart drawn by a calf. Wang Jun's forces sacked and pillaged the capital of Ye, abducting many women along the way.

By Zangxuangao - Own work, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=165126124

Concerned about the princes' military power and believing they'd overthrow Sima Jiong as they had those regents who'd come before him, a minister named Wang Bao sent a letter to Sima Jiong advising him to have the princes return to their territories and to bring Sima Ying into the regency's power. Sima Jiong was going to follow the advice, but Sima Ai found out about the plan and convinced Sima Jiong to execute Want Bao.

Around the same time, in May of 301, an edict ordering the refugees in Yi to return north, but many refused to do so, including Li Te. In the winter of that year, Luo Shang, the provincial inspector, declared war against Li Te. Sima Jiong also wanted to appoint Li Han to be the colonel of the Army of Readiness. Li Han, already Sima Yong's chief of staff, had a deep animosity for some members of Sima Jiong's cabinet members, so he 'fled back to his prince and conspired with him to rebel against Jiong'. Sima Yong received advice that he should publicly alight himself with Sima Ying by offering him the position as Crown Prince and to convince Sima Ai to also join in the rebellion, which would provoke Sima Jiong to punish Sima Ai, giving Sima Yong justification to overthrow Sima Jiong.

This plan was carried out in January of 303, with Sima Ying being tempted to join in even though Lu Zhi opposed the action. Li Han and Zhang Fang, one of Sima Yong's generals, were sent to drum up support for Sima Yong and the campaign. Sima Ai was sent a letter to attack Sima Jiong. Because of this, Sima Jiong sent troops to kill Sima Ai, who had 'fled to the imperial palace for protection'. Sima Ai endured being besieged in the palace with Emperor Hui for 3 days with his troops and the imperial guards defending it. On 27 January 303, Sima Jiong was captured and killed by his own officers.

Sima Ai was the next regent, though he deferred much of the authority to his half-brother Sima Ying. Sima Yong's and Sima Ying's ambitions were also frustrated. Sima Ai failed to address the rebellions, including that led by Li Te, which continued despite his death in February 303. Further complicating the situation was the consolidation of refugees and draft evaders under the leadership of Zhang Chang, a member of the Man group native to South and Southwest China, Sima Yong was ordered to campaign against Zhang Chang but 'refused to move his troops'. Sima Ai refused Sima Xin's request to engage with Zhang Chang who was threatening his territory, thinking that Sima Xin was colluding with Sima Ying. Sima Xin was later killed in battle by the rebels and Zhang Chang was able to conquer more territory in the southern provinces.

During this time, Huangfu Shang was acting as advisor to Sima Ai. Huangfu Shang had been an advisor since Sima Lun. Li Han didn't like Huangfu Shang from the time they met, which angered Huangfu Shang. Sima Yong and Li Han conspired to arrest Huangfu Shang's brother Huangfu Zhong, but Huangfu Zhong found out about the plan and attacked Li Han. Sima Ai tried to defuse the situation by ordering Li Han to Luoyang and for Huangfu Zhong to disperse his soldiers. Huangfu Zhong refused, though Li Han did go to Luoyang with orders from Sima Yong to assassinate Sima Ai. Sima Ai found out about the plot and killed Li Han.

In the fall of 303, Sima Yong, against Lu Zhi's advice, and Sima Ying joined forces to attack the capital. This time, Emperor Hui commanded his own troops, helping Sima Ai to defend Luoyang. Emperor Hui was able to defeat Sima Ying's forces by keeping mobile. He returned to the palace not long after his position was threatened in late October. Early November saw Sima Ai defeating Sima Ying's forces again. He took the emperor before Lu Ji, Sima Ying's general, and Sima Ai had his forces charge through Lu Ji's army, killing many. Lu Ji survived, but was later arrested and executed on Sima Ying's orders.

Sima Ai continued to keep the emperor with him as he moved to confront Zhang Fang's army. That the emperor was there caused panic among Zhang Fang's solders, resulting in their defeat. Zhang Fang built ramparts overnight rather than retreating as his soldiers wanted him to do. He took Sima Ai by surprise and Sima Ai's second attack was unsuccessful. After this, Sima Ai and his officials tried to negotiate a peace with Sima Ying based on their brotherhood, but Sima Ying would only agree if Sima Ai executed Huangfu Shang, but Sima Ai owuldn't do that.

Zhang Fang destroyed the Qianjin Dam, which cut off Luoyang's water supply, so Sima Ai got the Inspector of Yong province to defect from Sima Ying's side and further convinced him to attack Chang'an. Sima Ai also ordered Huangfu Shang to disband his forces so that they could be redeployed to Luoyang. Huangfu Shang was captured en route to Sima Ai and killed.

Sima Ai was able to withstand the siege until March of 304, at which point, Zhang Fang was about to give up and withdraw. Sima Yue, who was the minister of public works and another half-brother, thought Sima Ai would fail, so he with a group of officials kidnapped Sima Ai and put him under house arrest on 17 March. The next day, they surrendered, though when they saw how few soldiers there were, they regretted not holding out and some plotted to free Sima Ai. Not wanting to deal with the consequences should Sima Ai escape, Sima Yue sent Sima Ai to Zhang Fang who burned him alive.