Inspiration from the Ancient World

The Xin Dynasty (9-23 CE)

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After the assassination of Emperor Ping by Wang Mang adding poison to his pepper wine when he was 12 years old in 5 CE, he was followed by his infant cousin with Wang Mang as his regent, though he wouldn't ascend the throne and was officially usurped by Wang Mang. Liu Ying was chosen since Wang Mang wanted someone he could control, passing over 53 adult great-grandsons of Emperor Xuan and instead choosing a great-great-grandson, of which there were 23. During the selection process, with the approval of Grand Empress Dowager Wang Zhengjun, Wang Mang took the title 'Acting Emperor' and was to be so until the chosen heir could be selected and raised to majority. During his 'regency', there were several rebellions against Wang Mang. In 9, he officially took the throne, consigning Liu Ying to a dukedom as the Duke of Ding'an.

Wang Mang wanted to return China to a 'fabled golden age', as it would have been during the early Zhou dynasty and which Confucius idealized as well. He started with massive reforms, including abolishing slavery and nationalizing land ownership in 9 CE. Both were reversed in 12 CE after 'widespread protest'. A historian living near in time to Wang Mang's reign viewed these reforms as the reason Wang Mang's downfall, though modern historians point to Wang Mang's policies were 'in line with earlier Han policies'.

In order to try and stabilize a faltering economy, improve the livelihood of peasants, and weaken the power of noble families, Wang Mang also issued new denominations of currency several times, though this managed to debase the value of the currency in the Empire instead, causing greater economic harm. He was forced to rescind government monopolies in 22 CE due to being unable to enforce them. Further complicating Wang Mang's reign were several natural disasters, including the Yellow River changing its course, resulting in massive flooding, plagues of locust, and famines. Because Wang Mang's policies failed to solve the multiple crises, rebellions soon broke out among the peasants who had previously supported him.

In the eastern parts of the empire, desperate peasants became bandits, running in groups that grew to tens of thousands by the 20s CE. They organized into factions with the most powerful being the Red Eyebrows. Together with the nobles and Han imperial clan, they fought in a civil war against Wang Mang's army that started in 19 CE. Smaller bands along the Yangtze joined in the uprisings. The Xiongnu took advantage of this civil war to make inroads against the Protectorate of the Western Regions.

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Deciding on Emperor Wu's heir was complicated by multiple factors. His first wife, Empress Chen Jiao, was accused of using witchcraft to have a son and was deposed in 130 BCE. In 91 BCE, Crown Prince Liu Ju was accused of witchcraft and because he thought Emperor Wu would believe the allegations, he started a 5 day rebellion in Chang'an while Emperor Wu was at Ganquan, which is near modern day Shaanxi. When the rebellion was put down, he and his mother, Empress Wei Zifu, committed suicide. Emperor Wu formed a triumvirate regency for his son, Liu Fuling, who would be known as Emperor Zhao of Han and take the throne in 87 BCE at the age of 8. One of the regents died a year later. Another was accused of supporting the King of Yan as emperor and killed, leaving Huo Guang as the remaining regent. According to the Confucian establishment, Huo did not abuse the power he had and even was popular for reducing taxes that Emperor Wu had set.

Emperor Zhao died at the age of 20 in 74 BCE without an heir in place. While his nephew was at first chosen to follow him, he was removed 'after displaying a lack of character or capacity to rule'. Emperor Zhao's wife, Empress Dowager Shangguan was the one to receive the memorial signed by the ministers to approve. Eventually, a grandchild of Emperor Wu through Crown Prince Liu Ju, Liu Bingyi, later to be named Liu Xun and remembered and Emperor Xuan of Han, was chosen to be the next emperor and took the throne at the age of 17. Huo Guang continued on as regent until he died in 68 BCE, though his clan was accused of treason in 66 BCE and were eliminated, though the reason had to do more with Huo Guang's wife poisoning Empress Xu Pingjun, Emperor Xuan's wife, in 71 BCE and then pushing Empress Huo Chengjun on him in her place. Empress Xu's son, Liu Shi, would follow his father, reigning as Emperor Yuan of Han beginning in 49 BCE. He was followed by his son, Liu Ao who would be known as Emperor Cheng of Han, in 33 BCE

There were two major political factions during this time, the Modernist Party, which were dominant under Emperor Wu and during Huo's regency, and the Reformist Party, who became more dominant afterwards. The Reformist Party favored the abolition of state monopolies as well as limiting government influence in the economy, limitation of colonization, moderate foreign policies, and a frugal budget. They also preferred focusing on granting rewards for service rather than punishing faults to show how magnanimous the dynasty was. The salt and iron monopolies were abolished in 44 BCE, though they were reinstated in 41 BCE, lasting through the 1st Century CE. They also canceled 'many of the lavish spectacles, games and entertainments installed by Emperor Wu to impress foreign dignitaries' by 66 BCE for being 'excessive and ostentatious'.

During the reigns of Yuan and Cheng, there were alleged 'signs from Heaven' that the rulers were incompetent, a total of eighteen general amnesties were granted as well as a reduction in severity of punishments for crimes and the length of judicial procedures were reduced. Under the Modernist Party, it was acceptable for those who had the means to have their punishments commuted or dropped altogether, the Reformists stopped this practice since it favored the wealthy and wasn't a deterrent for crime.

To gain a male heir, Emperor Chen made massive changes to the state-sponsored religion. Rather than worshiping the Five Powers of Wudi, as had been done since Emperor Gaozu established it as the state religion in 205 BCE, in 31 BCE, he decreed that all ceremonies should be dedicated to Shangdi, the god that the Zhou dynasty had worshiped. He was encouraged to take more concubines as he continued without an heir. In 8 BCE, he finally made his nephew, Prince Liu Xin, his heir in 8 BCE. When he died either of a stroke or an overdose of aphrodisiacs in 7 BCE, rumors began to make the rounds that he had had a son with one of his concubines, but that they were killed by Consort Zhao Hede, who also supplied Emperor Cheng with aphrodisiacs. The combination of grief and fear of reprisals had her committing suicide.

Prince Xin took the throne as Emperor Ai in 7 BCE when he was 20 years old. He had the first 'crucial historical bibliographical work' the Seven Arts (Qi Lue) compiled. He first seemed diligent about ruling and did massively reduce the national expenditure. These actions gave people hope that he would be a more effective ruler than Emperor Yuan, who seemed indecisive, and Emperor Cheng, who was impulsive, but he soon fell under the sway of Consort Fu, who had been his the consort of his grandfather, and Consort Ding. At first, Grand Empress Dowager Wang limited them to visiting once every ten days, Princess Dowager Fu was soon visiting him daily and demanded both that she be granted the title of empress dowager and that her family be granted titles. Grand Empress Dowager Wang wasn't unsympathetic to Emperor Ai's bind suggested that Princess Dowager Fu be named 'Empress Dowager Gong of Dingtao' and that Consort Ding be named 'Empress Gong of Dingtao'. Grand Empress Dowager Wang wanted her nephew Wang Mang to resign so that his position as military commander be given to the Fu and Ding clans, but Emperor Ai asked that Wang Mang stay in his position. Empress Dowager Fu would continue to scheme for more and more power, leading to infighting in the capital.

Beginning in about 4 BCE, Emperor Ai began to engage in what historians believe was a homosexual relationship with Dong Xian. This was not uncommon for the Han emperors as it was expected that men would have multiple sexual relationships. What was unusual about this relationship was how quickly Dong was granted honors, which alarmed the court and any who raised objections were severely punished. Dong and his family, including his wife and sister, who would become an imperial consort, were moved into a residence in the capital that was 'as luxurious as an imperial palace'. Dong became the commander of the armed forces in 1 BCE, when he was 22, 'effectively the most powerful official in the administration'. His family even displaced the Fus and Dings after Grand Empress Dowager Fu died in 2 BCE. When Emperor Ai died in August of 1 BCE, he named Dong Xian as his heir, but Grand Empress Dowager Wang blocked this, naming Wang Mang as regent. Dong Xian and his wife were forced to commit suicide and Emperor Ai's cousin would take the throne as Emperor Ping at the age of 8.

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While Emperor Gaozu didn't align himself to a particular school of philosophy and ethics and Empress Dou embraced a proto-Taoist Huang-Lao philosophy as did her husband and son, and Emperor Wu, who took the throne in 141 BCE, followed Empress Dou's philosophy while she lived, after Empress Dou's death, Emperor Wu asked for memorial essays, or 'official communications to the emperor of China', on the topic of how to improve the government. He found the one written by Dong Zhongshu, who some call 'the first Confucian "theologian"', to be the one that appealed to him most. Dong's essay blended together Confucius' ethics with the 'cosmological beliefs in yin and yang and Five Elements or Wuxing [those being water, wood, fire, earth, and metal] by fitting them into the same holistic, universal system which governed heave, earth, and the world of man' while also justifying the imperial system 'by providing its place within the greater cosmos'. In 136 BCE, Emperor Wu eliminated any academic chair that wasn't focused on the study of Confucius' Five Classics, and in 124 BCE, he established the Imperial University, foretelling of the civil service examination system that later dynasties would use. This system allowed those who weren't related to officials to study to become officials within the bureaucracy, by focusing on knowledge of the Five Classics the most important prerequisite to gain office. The Imperial University began with 50 students and was expanded to 30,000 students by the 2nd century CE.

Another change caused by Empress Dou's death was that in the attitude toward the Xiongnu. In 135 BCE, the leading ministers opted to maintain peace and renew the heqin agreement, but a year later, the ministers were swayed to support war against the Xiongnu by the idea of a limited campaign along the border near Mayi were the Xongnu leader was to be drawn into an ambush to turn the Xiongnu's attention to the chaos of losing their leader rather than on harassing the Chinese. In 133 BCE, this plan was put into action, but it failed as the leader recognized signs of a trap. This led to a period of full scale war, which continued through to 89 CE. As the need for horses during this conflict were so high, the 'government offered exemption from military and corvée obligations for up to three male members of each household who presented a privately bred horse to the government' to make up the shortfall that the 300,000 horses maintained by the government couldn't meet.

One side effect of the war is that new territory was won by the Han, allowing them to expand. One of the more important places they gained was the Hexi Corridor, also known as the Gansu Corridor, to Lop Nur, which is now a mostly dried up salt lake. This gain cut the Xiongnu off from their allies the Qiang, or the western semi-nomadic peoples, likely from Tibeto-Berman origins. Under Emperor Wu, about 4.4 million square km of land was added to China, with frontier outposts that made connected the eastern end of the Silk Road to central China.

This connection to the Silk Road and it being made safer allowed the Chinese to discover 'entire countries which the Chinese were unaware of, the remnants of the conquests of Alexander the Great (r. 336-323 BCE)' which the diplomat Zhang Qian wrote about beginning in 139 BCE. This connection went as far as Rome, with silk being imported into Rome by the time of Julius Caesar, who lived from 100-44 BCE, and Roman Glassware made its way to China during the same time period.

To the south, Emperor Wu conquered the Nanyue, who controlled much of Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan Islands, and the northern part of Vietnam. this greatly expanded the land under Han control He also pushed into the area that is now North Korea in 128 BCE, though he abandoned that area two years later and another foray was made about 20 years later, which resulted in four commanderies being set up, two of which survived through 82 BCE.

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Emperor Wen ascended the throne in 180 BCE and reigned during a time of economic stability as the central government's power grew. Punishments that involved maiming or disfiguring were eliminated in 167 BCE. Taxes were forgiven across the country eight times between 180-141 BCE and the overall tax rate was halved for agricultural produce in 168 BCE, from 1/15 to 1/30 and was abolished the next year, not to be reinstated at the 1/30 level until 156 BCE, the year after Emperor Jing took the throne.

The dominant philosophy behind the government was that of the proto-Taoist Huang-Lao school of thought that focused on 'looking for solutions to strengthen the feudal order' and was espoused by Wen's wife, Empress Dou, who survived through 135 BCE, into the reign of her grandson Emperor Wu, who took the throne in 141 BCE. The name Huang-Lao comes from the Yellow Emperor and the philosopher Laozi, both of whom were thought to be the originators of the philosophy, and held to the central concept of the Daodejing, wuwei, or 'nonaction', meaning that 'rulers should interfere as little as possible if administrative and legal systems were to function smoothly'.

From 179-143 BCE, the number of kingdoms more than doubled, from 11 to 25, and the number of commanderies also more than doubled, from 19 to 40, mostly because those that tried to rebelled or didn't produce an heir were 'significantly reduced in size or even abolished and carved into new commanderies or smaller kingdoms'. One such rebellion was known as the Rebellion of the Seven States that was caused by the heir apparent of the kingdom of Wu visiting Liu Qi, who would be Emperor Jing but was still the crown prince at this time, and the two were playing a game known as liubo. The two got into a heated argument and Liu Qi threw the game, killing his cousin, which outraged the King of Wu, though he still had to 'claim allegiance to Liu Qi once he took the throne'. After Jing took the throne, the King of Wu, fearing that his kingdom would be reduced in size, rose up in rebellion along with Chu, Zhao, Jiaoxi, Jiaodong, Zichuan, and Jinan, all of whom shared the same fear. The revolt was put down, with several of the kingdoms eliminated, though they were recreated later while the remaining kingdoms were reduced in size. In 145 BCE, Emperor Jing made independent administrative staffs among the kingdoms and eliminated all senior staff except for chancellors, who were appointed by the central government and had less power than they'd held before, which would be further reduced by Emperor Wu. Emperor Wu also required that kingdoms be divided between all male heirs rather than following primogeniture inheritance.

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The Han 漢 Hàn dynasty is divided into two parts, the Western Han, which lasted from 202 BCE-9 CE and the Eastern Han, which lasted from 25-220 CE, based on the relative location of the capital. Liu Bang took the throne as Emperor Gaozu of Han and initially set the capital at the Zhou capital of Louyang, but his advisors were against this due to supply and defense concerns, so he moved his capital to Chang'an, near modern Xi'an, Shaanxi. To aid in governing, Emperor Gaozu set up a three part cabinet known as the Three Excellencies with nine ministries led by the Nine Ministers. And while there was a general condemnation of the Qin's extremely harsh Legalist philosophy, the initial law code compiled in 200 BCE with the assistance of Chancellor Xiao He was very similar to the Qin code. The land was divided up into commanderies, initially 13 and then increased to 16, with 10 semi-autonomous kingdoms in the western part of the country. At first, these were given to prominent followers, but because there were rumors of rebellion and alliances with the northern nomadic Xiongnu, they were replaced by members of the imperial family. These kingdoms were set up like the central government and were required to send census information and taxes into the central government. They had to maintain a standing army, but had to have permission to deploy those troops.

Because of the vast swath of land they controlled, trade with the Xiongnu was banned, in part to keep them from getting iron weapons. To help offset the loss of income for the merchants in Dai and Yan, they were made government officials with salaries to match their position. In 200 BCE, with the assistance King Xin of Hán (not Han Xin), who had been rewarded for his service during the Chu-Han Contention with the kingship but defected to the Xiongnu's side. Gaozu led an army to fight, but they were 'heavily surrounded for seven days; running out of supplies, he was forced to flee'. Lou Jing, who had warned of the Xiongnu's strength and been imprisoned for it, convinced the emperor to enact a policy known as heqin, where princesses, generally belonging to minor branches of the family, were married to neighboring state heads to secure treaties, as well providing luxury goods as tribute. The Xiongnu were barely appeased and would continue to hassle China's northern borders, prompting the building of the Great Wall, following a border established in 162 BCE.

In 195 BCE, Ying Bu, who had aided Gaozu during the Chu-Han Contention, rebelled and Gaozu led troops against him. He was wounded by an arrow and would die the following year. His son, Liu Ying took the throne as Emperor Hui and would reign until 188 BCE when he would die without a son by his empress, so his mother, empress dowager Lü Zhi picked one of his sons by a consort, Emperor Qianshao, and acted as regent for him, but using him as her puppet. In 184 BCE, she removed him and selected Emperor Haushao to rule as her puppet. She would prove to be inept against the Xiongnu when they invaded Longxi Commandery and provoked the king of Nanyue by banning exports to his kingdom in the south. She also violated Gaozu's explicit ban on other clans holding kingship by appointing her own family members, members of the Lü clan, as kings, as well as other key civilian and military offices.

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As 205 BCE moved toward winter Liu Bang persuaded Ying Bu of Jiujiang to join with him, which caused Xiang Yu to send his general Long Ju against Ying Bu. The leader of Western Wei defected from following Liu Bang and tried to block Han Xin's path to the north. Han Xin knew of Wei's plans and feinted to Linjin while actually going to Anyi, resulting in Wei's loss and capture. Han Xin then captured Dai, then continued on to Zhao where Li Zuoche, a Zhao general, thought he could cut Han Xin's supply lines and his return route to capture him. Han Xin feigned defeat, luring Li Zuoche to follow him. When the Zhao returned to their camp, unable to capture Han Xin, they found their camp occupied by soldiers that Han Xin had left behind for that purpose. Chaos resulted and Han Xin won against the Zhao army.

In 204 BCE, Yan surrendered to Liu Bang and he made his ally Zhang Er king of Zhao. Xiang Yu sent multiple waves against Zhao, but Han Xin and Zhang Er were able to hold their own against him. Xiang Yu turned to trying to capture Liu Bang, causing him to retreat north of the Yellow River to where Han Xin was. He took command of Han Xin's troops and then sent Han Xin on prepare to attack Qi while he tried diplomacy by sending Li Yiji, though without telling Han Xin about the diplomatic mission. Qi opted to surrender, which Han Xin didn't know, so he attacked the retreating Qi forces and captured the Qi capital. This resulted in the Qi king boiling Li Yiji alive and the king turning to Xiang Yu instead. Han Xin continued to pursue the Qi king. Xiang Yu sent a general named Long Ju against Han Xin and whom Han Xin defeated initially. Long Ju was told to get to Qi's king and bulk up his army but he Long Ju decided to attack Han Xin. Han Xin dammed the Wei River with sandbags the night before the battle. In the morning, there was a skirmish between the two, which, as was his go-to move, Han Xin feigned defeat and moved across the river. When about a quarter of Long Ju's forces crossed, Han Xin had his men remove the dam they'd built, cutting off Long Ju with only a small part of his army. Long Ju was killed in battle and Han Xin took control of Qi. He sent a message to Liu Bang, asking to become the king of Qi.

While Han Xin was taking control of Qi, Liu Bang was fighting Xiang Yu, waiting for Han Xin to reinforce him. At first, Liu Bang was very angry at Han Xin's request, but Zhang Liang and Chen Ping, an advisor, persuaded him to grant Han Xin's request. Xiang Yu also sent a representative to convince Han Xin to rebel against Liu Bang. Han Xin didn't rebel and later moved against Xiang Yu's army.

Liu Bang was trying to build up a supply line, but Xiang Yu attacked his routes. Liu Bang negotiated with Xiang Yu for some land east of Xingyang, but Xiang Yu's advisor told him to reject the offer and Xiang Yu pressed the attack on Liu Bang. Liu Bang bribed Xiang Yu's men to say that his advisor had betrayed him, which Xiang Yu believed, so he dismissed that advisor. He then had to go and deal with Han Xin's assaults. Liu Bang took advantage of Xiang Yu being gone to defeat the Chu army and advanced to the east of Xingyang. The Chu's army's moral fell sharply as their supplies ran out and Han Xin defeated them so soundly.

Xiang Yu was forced to seek a treaty with Liu Bang, releasing Liu Bang's family, and agreeing to divide China between Chu and Han along an east west line. While Xiang Yu was retreating to his side of the line, Liu Bang's advisors, including Zhang Liang and Chen Ping, suggested attacking the retreating Xiang Yu. Liu Bang reached out to Han Xin and Peng Yue, another general allied to him, to try and start a three pronged attack, but the other two didn't mobilize, Liu Bang lost, though he reached out to his two allies again, promising them both more land and titles for joining him.

In December of 203 BCE, the three leaders of the Han army executed the three pronged attack on Xiang Yu, who was running out of supplies. Han Xin had his troops sing Chu folk songs to make it seem the Chu people had sided with the Han, which caused many Chu soldiers to desert. Xiang Yu was only left with a guard of 28 cavalrymen when he managed to reach the Yangtze River. He decided to make a last stand rather than cross the river. They managed to kill hundreds of Han solders before they were overwhelmed and he cut his own throat rather than be caught alive.

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After the fall of the Qin dynasty in 207 BCE was a brief period of war known as the Chu-Han contention where Xiang Yu, a warlord who led rebels against the Qin dynasty, promoted the nominal leader of Chu to 'Emperor Yi of Chu' and divided Qin into the Eighteen Kingdoms. He considered himself to be the 'Hegemon-King of Western Chu', ruling over nine commanderies, or administrative division that could contain several counties, contained within the areas that had been in the Liang and Chu states. During that time, Liu Bang, who became a rebel against the Qin when he lost some prisoners he was escorting rather than face the death penalty. Emperor Yi was supposed to give him control over Guanzhong but instead gave that area to the 'Three Qins', giving them control over Yan, Dai, and Sai, while Liu Bang was sent to Hàn, which was remote, and gave him the title of 'King of Han'.

Not everyone agreed with Xiang Yu's appointments of leaders of the Eighteen Kingdoms. Tian Rong, a member of the royal house of Qi who'd been passed over because of a grudge, seized control of the states of Qi, Jiaodong, and Jibei, which had been all Qi before the Qin dynasty, declaring himself king. He gathered those who had been slighted by Xiang Yu, including Zhao and Yan's leaders. Xiang Yu tried to squash the uprisings in those territories while the rebels continued to expand their holdings, as when the King of Yan, Zang Tu, killed the king of Liaodong and seized the lands

Liu Bang took advantage of Xiang Yu's distraction with the northern rebellions to attack the Three Qins and take Guanzhong from them. Han Xin, a gifted military commander, became Liu Bang's grand marshal and proposed a feint of repairing the Gallery Roads, which are roads along cliff sides that have wooden planks secured in them by ropes while his army actually went west to invade Guanzhong and then took over Yong. Continuing on with the momentum from those two victories, Liu Bang conquered Longxi, Beidi, and Shang, taking time to also rescue his family from under the Western Chu.

Xiang Yu moved to block Liu Bang with Zheng Chang, the King of Hán (or Hann to make it clear that it is not the same as the territory Liu Bang was given), covering his flank. Liu Bang continued to conquer lands on the way to meet Xiang Yu. In April or May of 205 BCE, Liu Bang learned that Xiang Yu had ordered the execution of Emperor Yi, Liu Bang accused Xiang Yu of regicide and using that to justify all out war against Xiang Yu.

Xiang Yu defeated Tian Rong in May or June of 205 BCE and Xiang Yu allowed his troops to loot and plunder Qi territories. Tian Rong's brother and son continued to fight Xigan Yu. By September-October, Liu Bang had captured the Chu capital of Pengcheng, modern day Xuzhou. Xiang Yu led a much smaller army to retake Pengcheng, which caught Liu Bang off guard and allowed his family to be caught by Xiang Yu and cost him territory and allies.

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After Qin Shi Huang, which means 'first emperor of Qin', ascended the throne as emperor, he had all weapons not belonging to the Qin melted down, using the metal to create 12 statues for his capital at Xianyang. Beginning in 214 BCE, he began to push to expand the borders of his territory, with most of his troops going south where the Baiyue had taken over much of Sichuan while the Zhou were in charge. Because the troops didn't know the jungles of Sichuan, they were defeated by the Baiyue, though they were able to build a canal that allowed them to act as a supply line for their troops, which allowed them to gain lands around Guangzhou, including Fuzhou and Guilin. He eventually moved prisoners and exiles to these lands.

In the north, the 'Five Barbarians' were 'sporadically subject to imperial rule, they remained free from it for the majority of the Qin's existence'. The Xiongnu, who lived in the Ordos Desert, often harried the northwest border since they were prohibited from trading with the people there. In retaliation for these raids, the area was conquered in 215 BCE and used for agriculture, though the locals would later revolt.

Quin Shi Huang, paranoid because of three assassination attempts, one in 227 BCE and two in 218 BCE, was obsessed with finding an elixir of immortality or elixir of life. One of these expeditions were sent to find Mount Penglal to find a thousand year old magician that lived on it and who had supposedly invited Qin Shi Huang to visit while he was traveling. According to legend, they colonized Japan rather than return unsuccessful to the Emperor.

In 211 BCE, a meteor fell in Dongjun into which someone inscribed 'The First Emperor will die and his land will be divided'. No one admitted to writing the prophecy, so the Emperor had all those living near killed and the stone pulverized. In 210 BCE, Qin Shi Huang was touring Pingyuanjin, in modern day Shandong, when he died at the age of 49. One theory of his cause of death was from mercury poisoning from an elixir that was supposed to prolong his life. His death was kept secret for two months while the entourage could return to Xianyang, concealing the smell of his decomposition by carrying rotten fish while his son, chancellor, and select eunuchs kept up a charade that he remained alive. Once they reached the capital, his death was announced.

Because Qin Shi Huang sought to live forever, he didn't leave a will or name a successor. His chancelor and the leader of the eunuchs conspired to kill his oldest son, also forging a letter from the Qin Shi Huang that his eldest son should commit suicide as well as the general that supported him, which they did. Qin Shi Huang's younger son took the throne and the regnal name Qin Er Shi, meaning 'Second Generation of Qin'.

Qin Er Shi was inept, killing a large number of ministers and princes while undertaking massive building projects, including 'lacquering of the city's walls'. He also raised taxes, increased the size of the army, and arrested those messengers who had to deliver bad news. The chief eunuch and the chancellor came into conflict with each other, with the eunuch convincing Qi Er Shi to kill the chancellor. Qi Er Shi blamed the eunuch for rebellions that taxed the military. The eunuch then took part of a conspiracy to make Qi Er Shi believe that invaders were in the palace. When Qin Er Shi's quarters were invaded, he committed suicide.

Ziying, Qin Shi Huang's grandson through his eldest son, ascended the throne and had the eunuch executed. Unrest, largely caused by the regional differences across the empire, continued as the Qin rulers tried to enforce their ways of doing things. Ziying tried to placate those he ruled by only taking the title king, declaring that he was 'merely one king among all the others', but he was inept. Revolt broke out in 209 BCE. Ziying surrendered to Chu's lieutenant Liu Bang in 207 BCE. Though he was initially spared, Ziying was eventually executed, ending the Qin dynasty in 207 BCE.

During this time, the 'predominant form of religious belief in China…focused on shen (roughly meaning "spirits"), yin (陰; 阴; "shadows"), and the realm they were understood to inhabit. Spirits were classified as one of three types: "human dead" (人鬼; rénguǐ), "heavenly spirits" (天神; tiānshén) such as Shangdi, and "earthly spirits" (地示; dìshì) corresponding to natural features like mountains and rivers'. Animal sacrifices were used to make contact with the spiritual world, which was thought to parallel the physical world, with rituals used 'to recieve blessings from the spirit realm, and to ensure the dead journeyed to and stayed there'.

Qin Shi Huang worked to standardize the writing system that had split into regional variations during the Warring States Period. The goal of the standardization was to make the script faster to write with brush and ink. This allowed 'unifying in the empire different languages through the written language' and making it closer to modern Chinese writing than the seal script of the Zhou dynasty.

Warring States Period II

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As Qin became more powerful, the other states joined together in what was known as the Vertical Alliances led by Zhang Yi. The Qin forced those around them to join Horizontal Alliances led by Su Qin. The Vertical alliance began when the state of Qi reached out to Chu as they became concerned that Qin was becoming too powerful in 321 BCE. In 319 BCE, King Hui of Wei died and when his successor demanded that Qin leave his territory, Qi, Chu, Han, Zhao, and Yan attacked Qin on their behalf, though they fought amongst themselves about who would lead, which allowed Qin to take over more land. Qt this time, King Xuan of Qi also wanted to take over Yan, so he placed Mencius as a high official to give him approval even though 'none of the requirements in order for Yan's ruler to be changed per the Mandate of Heaven were met'. Qi attacked Yan, which the people of Yan welcomed, making the takeover a 'staggering success'.

Warring States Period I

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The Warring States period covered from about 475-221 BCE was the final part of the Zhou dynasty, and was characterized by military and bureaucratic reform amidst warfare as states were consolidated, and absorbed by other states. The partitioning of Jin into four and then three ruling families, with the extermination of the Zhi family often seen as the beginning of the Warring States period. During this time, the Zhou dynasty was largely seen as 'no more than symbolic figures who maintained the calendar and performed periodic ritual sacrifices, upon which the relationship of Heaven, Earth, and Man stood'.

The three remaining families, Zhao, Han, and Wei, were officially recognized as marquises in 403 BCE by King Weilie of Zhou and the final Jin duke was deposed in 376 BCE, ending the Jin state. Between those two dates, Qin, Qi, and Chu moved to take advantage of the fall of Jin as well. The Qi were eventually taken over by the Tian family and the split in half in 391 BCE, with half being ruled over by a puppet ruler and the other half under their control and they eventually gained full control after the puppet ruler died without an heir, which gained them recognition by the Zhou in 386 BCE.

In 370 BCE, King Hui of Wei ascended to the throne of Wei and he took advantage of his location and the work of his ancestors to enter into alliances, though the states he entered into alliances with tried to limit what he could accomplish. In 340 BCE, Qi attacked Wei and Wei only survive because Chu stepped up to assist them. In 335 BCE, King Hui met with the Qi ruler to resolve their issues, which was partially resolved by both taking the title 'King'.

When Shang Yang was passed over for the duke of Wey, he decided to take his talents elsewhere. He answered the call when Duke Xiao of Qin called for talent hoping that money and status would come from it. Duke Xiao's court, however, didn't like Shang's radical plans, but the Xiao was impressed and made Shang prime minister, a position he'd hold from 358-338 BCE. During his time, he moved Qin from 'one of the most backward states' by reforming their 'taxation systems, government management of the economy, standardization of measures and weight, promotion of the nuclear family and, as many writers emphasized, a harsh legal code', which included 'severe punishments for relatively minor crimes'. His reforms resulted in 'the first true state-wide bureaucracy in China', as well as undertaking a census 'which would help in delivering punishment to the entire family, another aspect of legalistic Chinese philosophy'. He fell from power, however, and would be considered an outlaw and then killed by the Qin armies in 338 BCE.

Late Spring and Autumn Period III

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The final portion of the Late Spring and Autumn Period is known as the Partition of Jin, when three families, Han Zhao, and Wei, sought control over the state of Jin. This is seen as 'a watershed event marking the division between the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods'. This wasn't a single event, however, and played out over several decades, which causes debates among historians as to when the two periods are divided from each other.

The State of Jin had long had problems with succession in leadership, going back as far as when King Xi of Zhou had to lend 'his royal clout to give legitimacy to Wu of Quwo as the rightful duke of Jin in 678 BCE'. Despite these ongoing problems, Jin expanded into new lands and awarded aristocratic titles to those loyal to them rather than the Zhou royal family. They also granted land to these vassals rather than to the minor branches of the ruling family as other ruling houses did. This led to the Jin remaining a feudal state while the other states, like Chu, were moving to a centralized bureaucracy. It didn't take long for the aristocratic families to have enough power to undermine the duke's authority resulting in Jin being 'composed of an assortment of semi-independent city-states fighting each other and the Jin Duke as much as they fought other states', with one retainer trying to invade the state of Qi with only his own troops.

As these families continued to gain power, they also sought to eliminate their competition through 'legitimate' methods as well. For example, in 607 BCE, after a duke tried to regain some control over the aristocrats, the families had him deposed. In 573 BCE, a duke encouraged the Luan clan to destroy the Xi clan and in 573 BCE, the Luan clan murdered that duke to place a puppet on the throne, and the Luan clan was eliminated by 550 BCE, leaving the Zhi, Zhao, and Han with the Wei clan gaining power not long after, with Fan and Zhonghang rounding out the 'Six Titled Retainers' that 'basically us[ed] the ruling duke as a figurehead until Jin was split into three separate states'.

Late Spring and Autumn Period II

The next two parts of the Late Spring and Autumn Period were Hegemonies, the first being 10 years under King Helü of Wu (506-496) and the next 31 under King Goujian of Yue.

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King Helü of Wu was born Prince Guang, son of King Yumei and nephew to King Liao, befriended an exile from Chu, Wu Zixu, who then introduced him to Zhuan Zhu, who was a butcher, at a time when he was wanting to overthrow his uncle. Zhuan succeeded at this in 515 BCE, elevating Guang to King Helü of Wu. He set about building a 'great city', which 'forms the basis of Suzhou's present old town'. With the assistance of Sun Tzu, who wrote The Art of War, and Wu Zixu, he turned his attention to defeating the state of Chu. They managed to reach the capital Ying, though while sacking the capital, Helü 'attempted to sexually assault the Dowager Queen, but she fought him off with a knife and remonstrated with him, leading to Helü leaving in shame'. Chu received assistance from Qin and Qin was able to defeat Wu's troops. Helü's brother Fugai, was so unhappy with the defeat that he led a rebellion that Helü put down. After this, Helü then was forced to leave Chu while Fugai settled in Chu. In 496, after hearing that Yunchang of Yue was dead, Helü decided to invade Yue, but was mortally wounded while doing so. He asked his son Fuchai to continue on and avenge him, which he did three years later, annexing Yue. In 482, King Fuchai of Wu sought to have an interstate conference to shore up his power base. This failed when Yue captured the Wu capital and Fuchai had to rush back. He was besieged and killed himself in 473 BCE as the capital fell.

During the Hegemony of Wu, in 499 BCE, Confucius was appointed prime minister of Lu. According to tradition, he wrote the Spring and Autumn annals. After two years of being prime minister, he 'was forced to resign and spent many years wandering between different states before returning to Lu', though he never returned to politics. He spent the rest of his life teaching and writing.

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Late Spring and Autumn Period I

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The Late Spring and Autumn Period covered the years from 591-453 BCE and can be further subdivided into four parts. The first part is dominated by Six Ministers. As noted, the Five Hegemons was defined by both internal and external conflicts including among the leading families. From this time, dukes of Lu, Jin, Zhen, Wey, and Qi became the dominant leaders. Within the state of Jin, the 'army was split into six independent divisions, each dominated by a separate noble family: Zhi (智), Zhao (趙), Han (韓), Wei (魏), Fan (范) and Zhonghang (中行)' for which the heads of these families then received the title of viscount and were then made ministers, heading six departments of the Zhou government, becoming 'the true power brokers of Jin'. This then occurred in Lu, though the army there divided into three parts and the leaders of those parts were then elevated.

The state of Wu was considered to be 'barbarian' as they were 'outside the Zhou cultural sphere'. They 'sported short hair and tattoos and spoke an unintelligible language' even though they also 'claimed to be a senior lineage in the Ji ancestral temple' even though they didn't participate in Chinese politics until the Late Spring and Autumn Period, around 584 BCE, during which they attacked the small state of Tan, 'causing some alarm'. Jin ambassadors were dispatched, offering to trade military training and technology for an alliance against Chu, who was also a neighbor of Wu, which they would continue to do for years.

The Five Hegemons II

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Duke Mu of Qin was born Ying Renhao married the daughter of Duke Xian of Jin, securing ties to to the clan, which were then strengthened when he married his daughter to one of Xian's sons who was being kept prisoner and she was meant to secure his cooperation in remaining imprisoned. When he escaped anyway, she remained, claiming loyalty to her father for staying and loyalty to her husband for not revealing his plans. She then became an ambassador to Duke Wen of Jin as well as his wife. This allied two of the 'most powerful states in China. Duke Wen of Jin expelled the Di barbarians and drove them into the region west of the Yellow River between the Yun and Luo Rivers…Shortly afterwards, Duke Mu of Qin, having obtained the services of You Yu, succeeded in getting the eight barbarian tribes of the west to submit to their authority'.

This alliance placed him well to exert the power of the hegemon even though he didn't have relations with other tribes when the Jin fell into infighting after Wen's death in 628 BCE, though he was never officially given the title. In 627 BCE, he planned to launch a surprise attack the state of Zheng but his army retreated when they were lead to believe the Zheng were prepared for them. Duke Xiang of Jin, Wen's successor, laid ambush for the retreating Qin army at the Battle of Yao, resulting in heavy casualties for the Qin. It was three years later that Qin retaliated on Jin, scoring a major victory in doing so. Satisfied, Mu returned to expanding westward instead of pushing farther east into Jin territory. He held a funeral for those who'd died in the ambush before leaving Jin territory. These actions are what 'earned him a position among the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period'.

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The Five Hegemons I

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The Five Hegemons 五霸 Wǔ Bà covers the time period from 685-591 BCE and was a struggle among the various states sought to control the position of hegemon, with the Chinese having the meaning of 'the eldest son born to the principle wife in a family' or 'senator'. The number five 五 can be both literal or it can be 'more generally qualitative and less precisely quantitative use, implying completeness'. There are multiple lists of the hegemons that contain about nine dukes who led various states with only two, Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin appearing in all sources and three appearing in most, which will round out the five explored in this overview.

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Duke Huan of Qi, along with his prime minister, Guan Zhong, led efforts to reform the state so that power was centralized. Prior to his gaining the office, Lü Xiaobai was not in line for the throne because he was at least the third son of Duke Xi. When Xi died, his eldest son took the throne, but 'his reign was fraught with internal conflicts and scandals'. Xiaobai's tutor took him to the state of Ju to save his life by living in exile. After his eldest brother was assassinated, a cousin took the throne and was murdered a month later. Xiaobai returned to Qi with the goal of becoming duke, though his second oldest brother, Jiu, had support of many high ranking officials in Qi. Xiaobai managed to take control of the government before his brother could, becoming Duke Huan in 685 BCE. His brother brought the army of Lu under Duke Zhuang to try and take the office, but they were defeated at Qianshi. Huan's tutor now led the army that invaded Lu to capture Jiu. Zhuang executed Jui and turned over Jiu's tutor, Guan Zhong, in an effort to appease Huan.

Huan's former tutor advised that he spare Guang Zhong and to employ him in a high ministerial role because he was very talented. Huan did so, making him his prime minister and they reorganized the Qi government and society, setting up a meritocracy and 'dividing both the land as well as the people into regulated units', which strengthened Qi, making it possible to 'mobilize human and material resources more effectively than other Zhou states, which remained loosely structured'. This allowed Qi to reach 'an unprecedented status of leadership in the entire Zhou world'. In 667 BCE, he invited the leaders of Lu, Song, Chen, and Zheng to a conference where the other leaders elected him their leader, which drew King Hui of Zhou's attention. Hui appointed Huan hegemon with 'authority to operate the military in the name of the royal court', a position that was 'supposed to "restore the authority of the Son of Heaven"' or monarch.

Huan focused on both internal issues, such as when the state of Wey defied the king, and external ones, defending against the 'Four Barbarians', as they were derogatorily called, such as saving the states of Yan, Xing, and Wey from invasion. He also prevented the state of Chu from expanding north, leading eight states against the state of Cai, a satellite state of Chu. He set multiple precedents in his time as hegemon. He was on the throne for nearly 40 years when he died in 643 BCE. The subsequent battles between five of his sons weakened the power of the Qi state so badly they lost the hegemony and there was no hegemon for nearly 10 years.

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Duke Xiang of Song tried to take over the position of hegemon after Huan's death, working with one of Huan's sons, Prince Zhao, and the states of Cao, Wey, and Zou, using their support to invade Qi to make Zhao duke, when he crowned Duke Xiao of Qi. He then thought that turning on the state of Chu would be the best way to gain the hegemony despite his advisors being against it. He was wounded in the battle of Hong in 638 BCE and died of his wounds the following year. Despite this failure, some sources consider him to be one of the Five Hegemons.

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Duke Wen of Jin, born Ji Chong'er in 697 BCE, was the half-brother of the crown prince Shengsheng and Xiqi. As their father aged, he began to favor Xiqi's mother and she wanted her son to be crown prince instead. She sets on a campaign to discredit Shengsheng, driving him to suicide in 656 BCE. This caused civil war within Jin and turned Duke Xian against his surviving children. Chong'er fled north with 'a retinue of capable men'where they remained until Xian died in 651 BCE. He was invited to take the duchy, but declined. It passed to one of his half-brothers, who took the regnal name Hui. Hui tried to assassinate Chong'er, which caused Chong'er to move to Qi in 644 BCE where he stayed until 639 BCE, when there was a succession crisis there. He then went through Cao, Song, Zheng, Chu, and Qin. In total, he spent 19 years in exile, gaining prestige and connections as he traveled.

The Spring and Autumn Period

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Spanning the time from about 770-481 BCE, the Spring and Autumn Period can be further broken into the Early Spring and Autumn Period, the Five Hegemons, and the Late Spring and Autumn Period. The royal family was much weaker, unable to enforce their will on the nobles and people, partially because they no longer had the land to support their six army groups.

King Ping, born Ji Yijiu was the thirteenth king of the Zhou dynasty, though he wasn't the preferred heir of King You since he'd exiled Queen Shen and Yujiu so that he could elevate his concubine Bao Si and her son Bofu. This caused Queen Shen's father to side with the Quanrong nomads who overthrew and killed King You and Bofu. Initially, two kings were crowned, with Ji Yuchen, possibly an uncle to Yijiu, being named King Xie king by Ji Han, who was Duke of Guo, and the Quanrong named Yuchen King Xie. For twenty years, the two ruled. Recently, the Tsinghua Bamboo Slips were donated to Tsinghua University after they were illicitly excavated at some point, and contain 138 strips on the Xinian chronicles which give an overview of the history of the Zhou dynasty through the middle of the Warring States Period and mentions that King Xie was accepted by several regional lords and was given the posthumous name of King Hui of Xie. King Xie was killed by Marquis Wen of Jin in 750 BCE.

The Commentary of Zuo, the Zuo Zhuan, mentions that King Xie violated the Mandate of Heaven. The Mandate of Heaven 天命 Tiānmìng was the idea that began toward the end of the Shang dynasty, possibly due to a combination of a period of long-term cooling that resulted in famine. A poem written at the time it was happening states 'Heaven sends down death and disorder; famine comes repeatedly'. About the time the Shang dynasty fell, the cooling reached its maximum. In May of 1059 BCE, the five naked-eye planets clustered tightly together in Cancer and Halley's Comet appeared about seven or eight months later (Halley's Comet's orbit can be perturbed by the Sun and outer planets so its orbit ranges from 74-80 years. While using the average orbital period worked backwards would give an expected date of 1057 BCE, looking at the records available indicate that it appeared in 1059 BCE.) These were 'interpreted by the powerful Lord of Zhou as a visible sign indicating supernatural approval', showing that the Shang had lost that approval. The Zhou were the first to claim such divine approval for their rule as well as divine parentage. Even though the Zhou dynasty was severely weakened, they maintained that they had the Mandate of Heaven.

It wasn't until 741 BCE that Marquis Wen actually supported King Ping and then helped Ping move the capital to Chengzhou in 738 BCE. The Zhou were dependent on their vassals to supply protection from raids and to deal with internal power struggles, never again reaching the power they had before the Quanrong raid. The King created the title of hegemon 霸 for the 'leader of the state with the most powerful military; the hegemon was obligated to protect both the weaker Zhou states and the Shou royalty from the intruding non-Zhou peoples: the Northern Di, the Southern Man, the Eastern Yi and the Western Rong', all of which appear to have been multi-ethnic groups of peoples who were labeled 'barbarians'. While there was a breakdown of 'clan customs, respect for the Ji family, and solidarity with other Zhou peoples', the prestige of the king 'legitimized the military leaders of the state, and helped mobilize collective defense of the Zhou territory'.

Through the Early Spring and Autumn Period, four main states—Qin, Jin, Qi, and Chu—emerged as the main powers, often using the 'pretext of aid and protection to intervene and gain suzerainty [overlordship] over smaller states' with rapid expansion leading to 'interstate relations [that] alternated between low-leve warfare and complex diplomacy'.

Eastern Zhou Overview

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After the death of King You in 771 BCE, the Zhou dynasty was relocated eastward to Chengzhhou, near modern day Luoyang, and is divided into two main parts, the Spring and Autumn Period, from about 770-481 or 476 BCE and the Warring States Period from the end of the prior to 221 BCE. During this period, iron became more common, changing the way warfare was conducted. The Spring and Autumn Period is named after the Spring and Autumn Annals, which is traditionally associated with Confucius.

According to the traditional narrative, Crown Prince Yijiu, King You and Queen She's son, was proclaimed the king by nobles from Zheng, Lü, Qin, as well as the Marquess of Shen and became King Ping. In the second year of his reign, the capital had been moved from the plateaus around the Feng River to where the Lou and Yellow Rivers meet. The Xinian Manuscript, a recently discovered text, however, says that 'The rulers of the states and various officials thereupon established the younger brother of King You, Yuchen, at Guo: this was King Hui from Xie. Twenty-one years after his establishment, marquis Wen of Jin named Qiu killed King Hui at Guo. For nine years Zhou was without a king, and the rulers of the states and regional lords then for the first time ceased attending the Zhou court. Thereupon, marquis Wen of Jin greeted King Ping at Shao'e and established him at the Royal Capital. After three years, he relocated eastward, stopping at Chengzhou.' This pushes the beginning of the Spring and Autumn Period to 738 BCE. This is still contentious, though it isn't without support, as the Zou Zhuan, a narrative history of the Spring and Autumn period and commentary to the Spring and Autumn Annals, says that 'Earlier, when King Ping had moved the capital to the east, Xin You had gone to Yichuan and, upon seeing someone with unbound hair offering a sacrifice in the countryside, he said: "Within one hundred years this likely will be the Rong's [territory]! Ritual propriety had been lost already!" In autumn, Qin and Jin moved the Rong of Luhun to Yichuan.' The 'prophecies' from the Zou Zhuan, being written after the events they describe when they're correct, and this one lines up with the history laid out in the Xinian Manuscript but not with the traditional narrative.

Iron metallurgy began in the 9th century BCE and reached the Yangtze valley by the late 6th century BCE. It would become more prominent after the mid 4th century BCE. The most common form of iron working at this time was cast iron with forged swords appearing during the later stages of the Warring States Period. Cast iron is more brittle than iron that has been wrought, or forged, or steel, which have more carbon worked into them.