Eduaraa

We have all been fascinated by space films since childhood. All films show space as a dark expanse. It's all black, with accents of color and various celestial bodies that radiate light here and there. There is a dark and black room. Holes that mark our universe. We are so familiar with the space around us, but we don't know why everything is so dark. Let's take a step and find out why the space we live in is this completely black expanse.

 What is space?

Science defines space as the unlimited three-dimensional extent to which objects and events have a relative position and direction. The concept of space is considered fundamental to understanding the physical universe. Space is everything that surrounds our planet, our solar system, etc. It has many effects on us and has extreme effects on everything else in general.

  Floating in space

If we were floating in space and hitting the sun, it would be so bright that our retinas would twitch. The rest of the sky, however, would be an expanse of soothing black, adorned with thousands of tiny, less fiery spots. We know for sure that our space is huge. It can even be called infinity, as looking into space in any direction would lead us to see even more of ourselves. The stars would be scattered everywhere. When we look, a bright spark from a heavenly body will look at us. Using this logic, it would be fair to assume that space should be as bright as a star since stars are all over the sky. the reality is a little different and everything was discovered when a famous scientist asked the question.

First possibility-Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers Paradox

The German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers asked this famous question in 1823, and it became so famous that a paradox called Olbers Paradox was named in his honor. The paradox is this: if the universe is infinite, static, and eternal, then wherever you look it will eventually hit a star. As we know, there are stars and galaxies in all directions in space. If that's true, what is it something that's been tested, why does our star-filled space appear black? Is there a star in every direction we look? Our experience tells us that this is not the case. In proposing this fascinating paradox, Olbers said that the universe cannot be infinite, static, and timeless. The universe could be a combination of the two, but it is impossible to be a combination of all three. In the 1920s, Edwin Hubble, an elegant man in town, discovered that the universe is not static. Galaxies are moving away from us in all directions.

  The universe and its expansion

The glowing space rocket prepares for launch while it waits on the launch pad. The engines begin to howl, the ground begins to shake. Dark smoke covers the bottom of the missile as it takes off quickly , the space rocket begins its journey  into the world beyond space. Space rockets are important because they allow space scientists to launch satellites, parts of space stations, and even astronauts into space.

How Does a Space Rocket Work?

Space rockets work on the same principle as most engines: they burn fuel. Space missiles turn fuel into a hot gas that allows it to move. The space rocket engine pushes the gas from behind, causing the rocket to move forward. But not all rocket engines are the same as jet engines. A jet engine works in the earth's atmosphere and therefore needs air to function. On the other hand, a rocket engine works in empty space. It doesn't need air.

  Types of Rocket Engines 

NASA and the other space agencies until they developed two types of rocket engines. Some of NASA's rockets use liquid fuel, the Russian Soyuz is also an example of a space rocket that uses liquid, other rockets use solid-fuel rocket boosters on the side of the Space shuttles. These are the two propellants for spacecraft that use rockets.

  Why does a rocket work?

One of the most common questions asked about rockets is how rockets move in space. There's nothing in space that the rocket can push against, so how do they work in space? This is where Isaac Newton's third law of motion comes into play. The third law of motion says that every action has an equal and opposite reaction, so in this case, the space rocket has to push its exhaust, it is this exhaust that moves the rocket inches forward so it can plunge into it. A vacuum cleaner. Imagine you are holding a bowling ball on a skateboard. If you throw it, the ball will fly forward, and so will you and your skateboard. The ball moves forward and you move backward.

  Thrust and Drag of Space Rockets

There are two types of functions a rocket ship has thrust and. The force that allows the rocket to rise to the top is called thrust. The strength of the thrust depends on the mass and speed of the gas that the missile can fire. In this case, the exhaust nozzle is also important. The aerospace engineers must ensure that the exhaust nozzle is of a shape that can properly expel the gas. The time when the space rocket engine can get enough power after buying the fuels. The thrust must be greater than the gravitational force that is pushing it down. As the space rocket climbs higher and higher in the earth's atmosphere, air resistance tries to push it down. This is also known as dragging. Now the space rocket's thrust must fight drag and weight to soar higher in the sky to reach outer space.

    How Does the Future Look?

We are all very different. Everyone has completely different traits and characteristics than other people, no matter how similar they may be in any way. Our own country, India, is a great example of great diversity. We have so many different languages, cultures, ideas, and much more, and we form a single country around the world. But with so much diversity and different cultures, we all somehow come under one meaningful umbrella term. This term is something we all know we are all human. How did this term come about, what is behind the name that we have given ourselves as human beings?

Humans and evolution

We need a basic understanding of human evolution to understand why humans are called humans. Initially, humans were called Homo Sapiens, which is our origin. As we evolved, things changed. Our height began to adjust as our brain size also grew with the cognitive skills we accumulated. The human brain is a key factor as its cognitive functions have made us who we are today. In the embryonic stage, people are the same. We just built several things. This human body has managed to cultivate human cultures by turning us into different organisms with a wide variety of functions.

  The origin of the name 

As we all know, most of the words in our English language today have their origins in languages ​​such as Latin and Greek. The "people" find their homes in similar origins. When we google we get tons of different answers and ideas about why we are affectionately called human. An unsatisfactory and common answer people get is, "All living things are beings, we are people." Another common but unnecessarily complex answer is “When the Concept” came into use, created in the image of God, which is why they were given the title “Being”.

Human beings as a verb

These answers are not the best and so we need to see them from a different perspective. When you are describing a place, person, or situation to someone, when you are telling a story, you are creating an image in another person's mind and you literally can't do it without the verb "to be". So if the verb “to be” is the verb of creation, consider this:

The reason we are called humans is not to describe our existence as humans, but to explain ourselves as creators.

When we know that human beings are human beings, another important question arises. We are beings, but what are we being?

In contrast to all other creatures on this earth, a human can manifest as one of the infinite possibilities.

Having ‘print awareness’ is optimum as it deals with all the concepts of print. This awareness provides the utmost information that books contain letters and words, that print carries meaning. It includes the interpretation of turning the pages, classification and identification of the header and footer of the page, evaluating and identifying the title, and the front and back of the printed materials. All these measures help in understanding the logic of print and thus enhances the print awareness.

Why is Print Awareness Beneficial?

The foremost step towards literacy is considered by infusing the knowledge of print awareness in an individual. Implanting print awareness enables an individual to acknowledge and identify the meaning of basic things around them. A different context is available that classifies the meaning of the specific object and its role in life. For example, a warning sign that means danger, books for knowledge or stories, numerous signs that confirm a favorite restaurant, or a menu for ordering foods. If a guardian takes up the process of print awareness, their wards are more conscious towards life.

Questions may arise about how print awareness would help you. The solution to this issue is that it provides knowledge of reading a printed material from left to right or top to bottom. You can understand the structure of the print that has been presented in a specific framework. It also confirms the knowledge of the words and letters and the reason and meaning for the spaces present after each word. Print awareness helps enhance an individual's awareness to read a printed article clinically and understand the meaning of different signs. Therefore, guardians and teachers must trust this process to render education to their wards from a very early stage.

Some students are well aware of different signs and printed articles before getting an admission to schools. They see numerous printed articles and materials such as billboards, letters, magazines, signs, and alphabets in books. When children see these signs and acknowledge the reaction of the adults around them, they gain knowledge and try to infuse it within them. A small child picks up the reaction of the adults more easily and therefore the responsibility is bestowed on the adults to teach them efficiently.  

Guardians and teachers must pay heed in providing efficient knowledge to the children to identify the letters, as it does not come magically. There must be a constant delivery of knowledge with proper reasons to the child. This will help them to recognize and understand the meaning of the print materials around them. Deficiency in educating the children with effective knowledge raises the chances of dyslexia. Therefore, you need to start the process of print awareness from an incredibly early stage. Teach them to recognize the letter, signs, and several other printed materials to implant the wisdom.

English Language Learners (ELLs) have their native language as priority followed by the English language. This article elucidates about the ways in which we can incorporate an excellent reading ability among ELLs.

1. Awareness of Phonemes

Smallest units that are elements of a word or a group of words are known as phonemes. To make the idea clear, let us cite an example- the word 'stop' is made out of four phonemes, i.e., s, t, o, and p, while in the word 'shop,' the phonemes which go into the making are s, h, o and p. Therefore, three phonemes combine to form the word 'shop.' 41 phonemes exist in the English language. The identification and subsequent manipulation of the phonemes in spoken language is referred to as phonemic awareness.

Points to be considered in teaching phonemic awareness to ELLs

a. It is possible that phonemes are eliminated from the native language of English Language Learners. In such a case, the sentences must carry meaning so that the manipulated sounds seem acquainted. Further, to get a good idea about phonemes, ELLs should be aware of the English vocabulary words. An educator can come to the rescue once a student finds difficulty with phonemes in helping them to learn vocabularies, meaning, and articulation.

b. Research suggests that ELLs respond well to meaningful activities like language games and word walls, especially when the activities are consistent and particularly focussed on sounds and letters.

2. Phonics

Phonics is all about recognizing a relationship between sounds of spoken language and their corresponding letters.

Points to be considered in teaching phonics to ELLs

a. Students who don't have an understanding of the written form of their language may find it difficult to understand concepts and need to be taught in a proper manner.

b. English, Greek, and Chinese or Japanese language are ways apart in dealing with phonemes. In the former case, the alphabets correspond to their respective sounds, whereas a character represents a morpheme in the letter.

3. Vocabulary growth

Vocabulary development, as you know, has the utmost priority in reading comprehension. Similarly, the students need to stock up on their vocabulary as it determines whether they can associate the meaning with the words or not. Having a good knowledge of words is very important, especially for ELLs.

Points to be considered in teaching vocabulary to ELLs

a. One reason why vocabulary is essential is that students need to comprehend the meaning apart from reading phonetically.

b. Children can learn vocabulary in the direct form and through the medium of dialogues or reading books.

4. Fluent reading skills

Fluent reading skills include being able to read and understand the words simultaneously with accuracy and proper speed. It also refers to the ability to speak quickly and with ease.

The two ways to improve fluency are:

1. Reading out loud and clear with the assistance of teachers.

2. Reading silently independent of any guidance.

Points to be considered in teaching fluency to ELLs

a. The Centre for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA) suggests that ELLs should read books aloud with an expert. Besides, they should also note how books are read by others (Hiebert et Al., 1998).

5. Reading comprehension tips and tricks

Reading comprehension is the final step to add to the above four steps in promoting a great reading proficiency.

Points to be considered in teaching comprehension to ELLs

a. Reading comprehension is associated with phonemes, phonics, vocabulary and fluency, according to the NRC.

b. Hiebert et al. (1998) suggests participating in discussions with students about the possible meanings of interesting terms like 'sweet tooth' or 'crocodile tears'.

Conclusion

Text Structure Strategy is a research that shows that the content consisting most texts is organized using a structure. The information presented in the content structure of a text is connected to better remembering and the information presented in the lower content structure is for a combination of two or more of the five specific text structures. The text structures are:

1. Comparison

2. Cause and effect

3. Problems and solutions

4. Sequential text

5. Descriptive text

These text structures are basically used to organize all texts irrespective of their genre, or content types which include science, social studies, current events, sports, and much more.

Expository texts like history allow the study of events that lead to cause and effect structures and sequence structures for the events.

When reading a narrative text, students often come across the question of the moral of the story or the actions of the characters. These ideas are studied as problems and solutions or cause and effect in case of events in the story. On the other hand, novels and textbook passages contain descriptive content text structures with sequences for events and cause and effect structures.

The Text Structure Strategy (TSS) was developed and refined by researchers for several years. Upon initial identification, the text structures have undergone several types of research about the what and how these help in providing students with absolute information recall. It has been found that good readers are able to take advantage of the text structures to select important ideas and create summaries for the stories or content. The summary or gist allows them to effectively remember the information after reading. 

The difference in Text Structure Strategy

The instructions for text structure strategy were always independent skills which are taught in a separate and distinct way different from main writing and summarizing or comprehension monitoring. Here are some of the easy ways to implement Text Structure Strategy in the class:

a. Activate background knowledge and discuss all interesting features in a text

b. Teach the use of vocabulary in the context by providing definition and examples for students with unfamiliar words

c. Preview the text with headings, segment reading, text understanding. The activities are done in large or small groups, silent reading, and other combinations in classrooms.

d. Focus on a skill for the week or a combination of skills that can constitute textbook content. The activity helps focus on aspects like ideas, genre, summary, comprehensive monitoring, etc. 

Instructions for Implementation

In contrast to textbook ideas and classroom practices, TSS is integrated into all textbooks for science, social studies, etc. Here are some of the ways to highlight important differences to current practices:

a. Create an efficient plan to incorporate higher-order text structures for instructions

b. Activate background learning and discuss interesting facts and ideas that include text structures like cause and effect, problem-solving, and comparison. 

c. Teach vocabulary in a context that provides definitions and examples for children with unfamiliar words. 

d. Include regular instructions about selecting ideas while reading, writing, idea development, and comprehensive monitoring. 

Types of Text Structures and Definition

1. Comparison

This form of text structure is descriptive but deals with two or more topics and highlights similarities and differences between them. The structure uses keywords including “more”, “less”, “than”, etc.

2. Cause and effect

The text explains the highlights of an event and its results. The text structure is mainly used for science and history. Keywords like “because”, “therefore”, and “why” are very common in all-cause and effect text structures.

3. Problems and solutions

These text structures contain mainly two parts. The first part talks about an issue and the second talks about how to solve or rectify it. The structure is used in subjects like mathematics, science, and social studies. Keywords like “issue”, “problems”, “trouble”, “fix”, etc.

4. Sequential text

Similar to chronological texts, the sequential text is also used as a structure to put in order of importance, alphabet, time, etc. the order is based on several structures and is used in lab reports, how-to-piece, history, etc. keywords like “first”, “next”, “how”, and “why” are very common in sequential text.

5. Descriptive text

These texts are used to describe an event or scene and are typically based on organized information by location. The text is used equally in all fiction and non-fiction stories and news. The descriptive text structure is generally used in textbooks, science, and history. Keywords like ”above”, “below”, “behind”, etc are very common with adjectives and act as hallmarks for the text structure. 

Inference is a conclusion based on reasoning and evidence. Etymologically, it means ‘to carry forward’. While it has a different connotation in philosophy, here, you will understand inference as a tool to encourage and develop your child’s thinking prowess. Our experiences shape our conclusions, and our conclusions shape our understanding. So, it is essential to learn the art of concluding right from the very beginning. 

Especially for a child, it is highly beneficial for once they master the art, it will aid them in different situations and scenarios. An instance can be provided for the same - these skills that they will acquire through the learning process will help complete school projects and assignments. It will also be applied during a reading session in social studies, science, and other subjects.

Thinking based on inference is a skill that needs to be developed gradually, step by step. Proper observation will create new experiences which will embellish inferential thinking. Although drawing inference is a complex ability, one must have the due patience to witness its growth. Firstly, they should encourage children to carefully observe situations where a piece of implied information is stated. This should be followed by helping them understand the particular situation, substantiating their inferential thinking process.

Families are a great way to look while introducing this thinking skill to their children. This means, if one is eager to enhance their child’s ability to draw inferences, they must create ample opportunities and make the best use of them in the best possible way.

To help you with the process, here is a list of ideas to begin with.

Make your children understand the fact that all the time, we make inferences and only draw a conclusion about certain things. For example, Rahul played outside today. How is it possible for us to say that? Clues include jump rope on the porch, mud-caked shoes, and a bottle of water kept outside.

Brown paper bag mystery man: Select a few items and put them into a brown paper bag, and the next step is to tell your child that the bag belongs to a particular type of person. Their job is to assess those things and say what type of a person he is. After that, take out all the items and discuss them with your child and how these things help infer about the person he is.

Example 1. Goggles, a stopwatch, a swim cap, a swim ribbon.

Example 2.  a book, a bookmark, a stuffed animal, and a library card.

In the first example, we can infer that the person is a professional swimmer, and in the second example, we can understand that the person is a librarian.

Picture books with no words at all can be initiated in a child’s learning process. Every child will find out their new and unique ways to explore the book. Their observations can possibly be separate from one another.  They will learn to connect the given clues and form a story that will be beautiful in its own way. Some examples of such books are: Good Dog, Rosie’s Walk (Hutchins), Carl (Day), and ‘Beaver is Lost’ by Cooper. These are all intriguing books which your child will be happy to explore. 

Play a game of twenty questions. An example will help you to have an idea about the former sentence correctly. The online game ‘Akinator’ you might have played with Google gives you a clue of the type of game referred to. However, if you are unable to get to the bottom of this, read further. So, instead of your child directly asking ‘whether it is a cat?’ or concluding instantly, encourage them to ask queries that will be a slow evolution of the necessary process like ‘Does it have four feet to walk on?’ This fun process will serve as a bonus point as it will improve their inferential thinking and imbibe skills of patience.  And when your child provides you the correct answer, inquire them about the hints and conclusions which made them draw the right response.

Introduce your child to a scenario where they will use the knowledge that they already possess multiplied by new information that they will formulate to come to a deduction. Will a plant seed grow in sunlight when water is provided or in a dark room with no water at all?

Conclusion

Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) is one of the learning and reading strategies that help the kids with critical thinking. This strategy helps and guides the students to question a text, prediction, and reading to confirm or deny their predictions. The DRTA process keeps the children active in thinking, enhancing, and comprehensive for their thoughts on a topic.

Why use directed reading thinking activity?

DRTA enables and encourages the students to have a different approach to reading and thinking. Here are some of the advantages and reasons why we use the DRTA approach for a reading activity.

· It encourages and enables the readers to be active and thoughtful throughout the activity.

· It activates the readers' or listeners' prior knowledge on the topic by focusing the curiosity through acceptance or denial.

· It teaches and encourages the students to monitor and analyze their understanding skills of the text or the topic while reading.

· It mainly helps in strengthening reading, understanding, and critical thinking skills.

How to use DRTA (directed reading thinking activity)

DRTA can be used or implemented in every class or session with easy practice. Here is a simple guide with the steps and ideas on how to use DRTA in a class and how to effectively create drta.

1. Before planning on creating DRTA, the foremost step is to determine and decide the text that you are planning to give the students to read.

2. The next step is to pre-select the points for the students or the listeners to argue or to think during the pause.

3. Introduce the text to the listeners with examples on how to make predictions and choose the sides.

4. Be cautious and careful to choose the level of reading based on your listeners and readers as the level of understanding is important to enabling the students to read, understand and question promptly.

5. Ensure you use the below DRTA procedure to draft activity:

D = DIRECT.

Teachers should direct a student and activate their thinking process before reading by scanning the title, reading the subheadings, skimming through the illustrations and other materials and references. This enables the students to gather a basic understanding and knowledge of the topics. Also, the teachers should place open-ended questions to the students directly and encourage them to make predictions and interpretations about the topics.

R = READING.

Once the teacher enables the students with the prior reading and thinking process, the next step is to make the students read till the pre-selected point. Once the reading is done, the teacher presents the open-ended questions to the students about specific information. Then they ask them to evaluate their predictions on the content and enhance them if necessary. This process continues until the students have read all the passages in the text.

T = THINKING.

The final and the last stage of DRTA is the thinking process. After reading the entire content, the students should go back to the text and think about their pre-reading predictions and their derivations after predictions. This will help them reevaluate their thinking process. Here are some examples of questions that the teacher can place in front of their class to understand their thinking process.

- What do you think about your pre-reading predictions now?

- Did you find any supporting text to prove your predictions?

- What is the text that made you change your predictions after reading them?

After these questions are put in front of the students, the teachers can decide the reading and thinking ability of the students.

How to implement DRTA for students who are beginners and have difficulty in reading?

It is a little tricky to determine or draft DRTA for the students who are just beginners or those who have difficulty in learning. In this case, the amount of intensive learning should be regulated or adjusted accordingly. You can choose a lesser-length passage with lesser text. Also, make sure that you choose a passage that is easy to read and understand. Here are the easy ways to simplify DRTA for beginners.

a. Break the passages into smaller lengths to make them easy for learning and understanding.

b. Make the students write their predictions. Writing the predictions makes it easy for the students to understand and simplify the predictions. Then the students can sit in small groups and discuss their predictions and share their thoughts on their predictions. The students can summarize these writings into statements and compare their predictions.

c. After the pre-reading predictions are discussed, read the passage to the students and then discuss the predictions pre- and post-reading thoughts.