Istanbul Trip

Responsibility of Judges

All judges in Bulgaria, like other State functionaries, are responsible for their actions. This responsibility may be civil, criminal, or disciplinary, depending on the nature of their conduct. Such accountability ensures that judges act fairly, honestly, and according to the law.

Special Tribunals

In addition to ordinary law courts, the Principality has several special tribunals. These include:

Military Courts

Religious Courts

Consular Courts

Military Courts

The military courts handle all criminal offenses committed by persons serving in the active army. These cases may involve ordinary crimes or professional military offenses. The purpose of military courts is to maintain discipline and order within the armed forces Istanbul Tours.

Religious Courts

The Principality has courts for different religions:

Orthodox courts: These deal with marriage, divorce, and religious matters. They cannot decide property disputes between married couples, which remain under the authority of the ordinary courts.

Mahommedan courts: Also known as courts of the muftis, they handle personal and property matters for Muslims, including inheritance, marriage, and divorce, but only between persons of the same religion.

The decisions of religious courts are enforced by the bailiffs of the ordinary courts, who must first grant permission.

Consular Courts

Consular courts were established under Article 8, §2 of the Treaty of Berlin. They deal with civil and commercial disputes involving foreign citizens, except when the dispute concerns landed property, which is handled exclusively by Bulgarian courts.

While these courts were once necessary when Bulgaria’s judiciary was still developing, today they are considered an anomaly. Modern Bulgarian courts are well-organized and capable, providing justice and fairness to all parties, including foreigners. As a result, many foreign citizens now voluntarily renounce consular jurisdiction, preferring to bring their disputes before Bulgarian courts.

Examination of the Draft

After the Organic Statute was submitted, it was referred to a committee of fifteen members. Their task was to study the draft carefully and report back to the Constituent Assembly.

The debates that followed the committee’s report revealed that Bulgaria already had capable men who could guide the country’s political future. These discussions were intense and showed a high level of knowledge and understanding of governance.

Influential Figures in the Assembly

The principal speakers in the debates were mostly young men who had recently returned from European universities. They brought with them:

Knowledge of European law and politics.

Personal observations from their stay in European capitals.

Experiences of parliamentary life in countries like France, Belgium, and Serbia.

Unlike the traditional elite, most of these men were elected through popular suffrage, not born into privileged positions. They represented the ideas of civilisation, culture, and liberal values in an Assembly that still included many Turkish rayas Istanbul Tour Guide.

Even at this early stage, political tendencies were emerging that would later divide Bulgaria into distinct political parties.

The Committee’s Proposal

The committee proposed changes that were seen as more conservative than the original draft. Instead of a State Council, the committee suggested creating a Senate.

They also introduced property-based qualifications for voters. Citizenship alone did not give political rights. To vote or to become a member of the Assembly, a person had to meet specific financial requirements, which were especially strict for candidates.

These measures were designed to limit the influence of ordinary citizens and maintain control in the hands of wealthier individuals.

Rejection of the Committee’s Report

The Assembly rejected the committee’s report. Instead, members decided to consider the original Russian draft, discussing it point by point. This approach ensured that the final constitution would be more liberal and representative than the committee’s conservative proposals.

Forests and Vegetation

Forests of the Plains and Mountains

The plains of Bulgaria are mostly covered with oak forests (Quercus species). These oaks grow widely and are the most common trees in the lower areas. Above 500 metres, the beech tree (Fagus sylvatica) becomes the dominant species and is the most important tree of the Bulgarian mountains.

In the middle mountain zones, oaks and beeches grow together. Oaks cover the lower slopes, while beeches dominate the upper slopes. Evergreen oaks are found above 1,000 metres. Other trees mixed with oak and beech include hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), elm (Alnus glutinosa), and plane trees (Acer pseudoplatanus) Turkey Sightseeing.

Above the beech forests, particularly in the Rhodopes and Rilo mountains, conifer forests are common. These include fir trees (Abies pectinate, Picea excelsa), pines (Pinus silvestris, Pinus laricio), and juniper (Juniperus nana). In some areas, the beech has replaced the conifers, making them rare in the Stara-Planina and Ossogovo mountains.

On the hills and lower slopes, forests are replaced by shrubs, brambles, and thorns. Among these, lilac groves (Syringa vulgaris) are especially characteristic. The north ridge of the Rhodopes provides a clear example of the vertical distribution of trees:

Oaks grow up to 700 metres

Beech trees up to 1,300 metres, mixed with conifers above 1,100 metres

The highest tree-covered region reaches 1,900 metres

Southern Bulgaria and Agriculture

Southern Bulgaria, sheltered from cold north winds by the Stara-Planina, is rich in southern plants. The main crops grown are wheat, maize, and barley. Other crops include rye, oats, millet, and spelt, while buckwheat is rare. Rice is common in the Maritza valley, and potatoes are being introduced in less fertile areas.

The Castle of Bohemond and the Walls of Blachernae

The Castle of Bohemond

The fortress near the Blachernae quarter was once given to Bohemond of Antioch by Emperor Alexius Comnenus. Because of this, it became known as the Castle of Bohemond. Later, Emperor Andronicus II Palaiologus ordered the dismantling of this fortress. He feared that the Catalans, who were mercenaries known for their violence, might seize and use it against the empire.

The castle and the surrounding walls were not only important military points but also stages for some of the most dramatic moments in Byzantine history.

Rebellion of Tornikius (1047)

In 1047, during the reign of Constantine Monomachus, the rebel general Tornikius brought his army against the walls near Blachernae. At first, he defeated a group of poorly trained recruits who had rushed out through the Gate of Blachernae to confront him. Tornikius nearly succeeded in entering the city with the fleeing soldiers. However, the wide moat in front of the walls slowed his advance, giving the defenders just enough time to shut the gate and prevent him from storming Constantinople.

The Revolt of Alexius Comnenus (1081)

The Gate of Blachernae again played an important role in 1081, when the supporters of Alexius Comnenus rose against Emperor Nicephorus Botoniates. Alexius’s friends left the city secretly through this gate to join his banner of revolt. At the Imperial stables, located just outside the gate, they found horses to ride quickly toward the Monastery of Saints Cosmas and Damianus. To prevent being chased, they cut the leg tendons of the horses they could not take, making pursuit impossible. This clever tactic gave them a safe escape and allowed them to gather strength for their uprising.

The Crusaders at the Walls (1097)

During the First Crusade, in 1097, Godfrey de Bouillon and his army camped outside these walls, on the hills and plains of the Cosmidion district. While negotiations with the cautious Emperor Alexius Comnenus were underway, tensions rose. The Crusader envoys were kept waiting by the emperor for so long that their companions suspected treachery. In anger, a group of Crusaders rushed from their camp and tried to break into the city to rescue the envoys. In the process, they even set fire to the Gate of Blachernae, showing how quickly mistrust could turn into violence Private Tours Bulgaria Varna.

The Fourth Crusade (1203)

More than a century later, in 1203, the land forces of the Fourth Crusade attacked the same fortifications. This was part of the campaign that would eventually lead to the capture and sack of Constantinople in 1204, one of the darkest chapters in Byzantine history.

Safety and Freedom for Women in Modern Bosnia

Today, Bosnia is a safe place for women, whether they live alone or travel by themselves. This is a major change compared to just a few years ago. In the past, women could not even walk through the fields or along public roads without fear. Harassment and violence were common, especially under Turkish rule. Now, with peace and better law enforcement, women can move freely throughout the country without danger.

The Great Escape from Turkish Oppression

During the ten years before the Russo-Turkish War, more than 200,000 people fled from Bosnia. They were escaping the cruelty and harsh treatment of the Turkish rulers. These refugees left their homes with nothing but the clothes on their backs and whatever they could carry. Holding their children’s hands, they passed through forests and mountains to reach the Austrian border, where they finally found safety. Ironically, they were not just fleeing from war or enemies, but also from the very officials who were supposed to protect them Sofia Guided Tours.

The Brutality of Turkish Rule

Under Turkish rule, the crimes committed against Bosnians were terrible and widespread. The Turks used violence and fear to control the population, and the scale of their cruelty is difficult to describe. According to an official report by the British consul, between 8,000 and 10,000 people were murdered each year—not by criminals, but by government officials and soldiers.

This type of violence was not limited to Bosnia. It also occurred in Bulgaria, and it continues today in areas like Macedonia and Eastern Rumelia, as long as European powers allow Turkish control over those regions.

The Scheriatschule A Unique Legal Institution

One of the most interesting institutions in Bosnia is the Scheriatschule, a special school where students learn about Islamic, Christian, and Jewish law. This is important because Bosnia’s population includes many different religious groups, and the government works hard to respect everyone’s beliefs.

This school helps train judges and officials to understand and apply the laws of each religion fairly. The Austrian government realized that religious beliefs influence people’s actions more deeply than almost anything else. They understood that good governance must consider religious conscience.

Respect for Religious Freedom and Fair Justice

Because of this understanding, Bosnia allows each person to worship freely and even exempts people from certain laws if those laws conflict with their religious beliefs. To support this system, separate courts have been set up for different ethnic and religious groups. This ensures that every citizen receives justice that aligns with their faith and traditions.

Conflict with Alexander III of Russia

Alexander III of Russia never liked his cousin, Prince Alexander of Battenberg, for reasons that remain unclear. As soon as Alexander III became Czar, he called Prince Alexander to account for his anti-Russian policies in Bulgaria. The prince tried to explain his actions, but his explanation did not satisfy the Czar.

Prince Alexander explained that he was trying to run Bulgaria’s affairs in the best interests of the people, without considering foreign pressure. However, his liberal policies were seen as too independent and too free for the Czar. Prince Alexander was a Protestant, and his efforts to encourage education were not welcomed by the clergy of the Greek Orthodox Church, who were powerful in the region. He also granted freedom to the press, which allowed democratic ideas to spread. This, in turn, strengthened the Liberal Party in Bulgaria, which was anti-Russian and even wanted a republic instead of a monarchy Ephesus Sightseeing.

Growing Tension and Loss of Power

As Prince Alexander’s policies clashed with Russian interests, he found himself in an increasingly difficult situation. He had hoped to govern independently, but he soon realized that the Russian officials in his government were taking their orders from St. Petersburg, not from him. This made it clear that he no longer had full control over his own country.

Determined to assert his independence, Prince Alexander tried to remove the Russian officials and replace them with native Liberals who would support his vision for Bulgaria. However, the Russians reacted with extreme hostility.

A Conspiracy Against the Prince

The Russian response to Prince Alexander’s attempt to assert control was one of the most shocking and shameful conspiracies in modern political history. While such events may have occurred in the Middle Ages, during the time of robber barons and political schemers, what happened in 1886 was nothing less than a political scandal that shocked Europe.

The Assassination Attempt

At two o’clock in the morning on August 21, 1886, Prince Alexander was suddenly awoken by his valet, who handed him a revolver and urgently told him to escape through a window. The situation was dire, and it was clear that the prince was in danger. However, Prince Alexander was not the kind of man to run away from danger. Instead of fleeing, he chose to face the threat head-on.

After getting dressed quickly, the prince walked into an ante-room of his residence, where he was confronted by a group of Russian officers. Some of these officers had recently been dismissed by him, while others were still in government positions. It was clear that they were there to force him out of power and take control of his position.

Escape to the Fortress

When Xenophon’s soldiers re-entered Byzantium, they blocked access to the Acropolis from inside the city. As a result, Anaxibius, the Spartan commander, could not reach the fortress by land. Instead, he had to board a fishing boat in the harbor and sail around the point of the promontory to reach the eastern side of the city, opposite Chalcedon (modern-day Kadıköy). From there, he also sent a request to Chalcedon for military reinforcements.

These movements strongly suggest that the Acropolis, the ancient stronghold of Byzantium, was located at the eastern tip of the promontory, near what is today Seraglio Point Sofia Daily Tours.

Discovery of an Ancient Wall

In 1871, during excavations for the Roumelian railway, workers uncovered an ancient wall just south of Seraglio Point. The wall ran east to west and was made from massive stone blocks—some over 7 feet long, nearly 4 feet wide, and 2 feet thick. Due to its size and location, scholars believe it was part of the original fortifications around the Acropolis. This wall gives physical proof of how well the ancient city was protected.

The Second City Wall

The second circuit of walls surrounding Byzantium was described by Anonymus in the 11th century and by the historian Codinus. According to their writings, the wall began at the Tower of the Acropolis, located at the tip of the promontory, and extended westward along the Golden Horn. It reached the Tower of Eugenius, likely near the Yali Kiosk Gate (Yalı Köşkü Kapısı).

From there, the wall turned inland toward the Strategion, which was the city’s military parade ground—similar to the Champ de Mars in Paris. This area stretched across the plain at the foot of the Second Hill, between the Yali Kiosk Gate and the modern-day Sirkeci Train Station.

The Baths of Achilles and Brass Market

Near the Strategion stood the Thermae of Achilles, or the Baths of Achilles, a public bathhouse popular in the ancient city. A city gate once stood there as well and was later known as the Arch of Urbicius.

Music Opera and Ballet in Sofia

Sofia offers a rich cultural scene in classical music, opera, and ballet. Here are the top venues and events you shouldn’t miss.

Bulgaria Hall (Zala Bulgaria) Location: B-3, ul. Aksakov 1

Phone: 987 76 56

Home To The Bulgarian Philharmonic Orchestra

What to Expect: This is the premier venue in Bulgaria for symphonic concerts. Expect performances of works by famous composers like Beethoven, Mozart, and Tchaikovsky, as well as concerts by local conductors and soloists.

Opening Hours: 10:30–13:00 and 15:00–18:00, Monday to Friday

Closed: Saturday and Sunday

Music Centre “Boris Hristov” Location: B-2, ul. Tsar Samuil 43

Phone: 987 35 92

What to Expect: Named after Bulgaria’s legendary opera singer, this centre combines a museum collection with a performance space. It supports young talent in music, opera, visual arts, and theatre, all housed in a hall featuring a grand piano and excellent acoustics Mystical Bulgaria Tours.

Opening Hours: 11:00–18:00, Monday to Friday

Closed: Saturday and Sunday

National Musical Theatre

Location: B-5, ul. Panayot Volov 2

Phone: 944 50 85 (tickets: 943 19 79)

What to Expect: Famous for operettas and musicals, this theatre also presents occasional dance performances. It’s a colorful, joyful venue, perfect for a light-hearted cultural night out.

Opening Hours: 08:30–18:30, Monday to Saturday

Closed: Sunday

National Opera and Ballet Location: B-4, ul. Vrabcha 1

Phone: 987 13 66 (tickets also via email/fax)

What to Expect: This is the crown jewel of Sofia’s cultural life. Featuring top local performers, international guest stars, and world-class productions of opera and ballet, the repertoire includes classics like La Traviata, Swan Lake, and Carmen.

Opening Hours: 09:30–18:30, daily; weekends 10:30–18:00

National Palace of Culture (NDK) Location: D-2, pl. Bulgaria 1

Phone/Tickets: 916 68 30 / 916 63 69

What to Expect: The largest cultural centre in Sofia with a main hall seating 3,800 people. NDK hosts major musical events, including orchestral performances, international artists, contemporary music festivals, and large-scale dance shows.

Opening Hours: 09:00–19:00, Monday to Saturday

Closed: Sunday

Not to Miss: Sofia Film Fest Sofia Film Fest, held each spring, is Southeast Europe’s leading film festival.

Dates in 2008: March 6–16

What to Expect: Over ten days, you can watch world-class films from Bulgaria, the Balkans, and beyond. Screenings are held in multiple venues across Sofia.

Tip: The 2008 program was not yet available at press time. Visit www.cinema.bg/sff closer to March for schedules and details.

Why Attend These Cultural Events?

Affordable Prices: Tickets are budget-friendly, even for high-quality performances.

Diverse Choices: From symphony concerts and operas to musicals, dance, and international cinema, there’s something for every taste.

O'Mahony Letters on the Balkans in 1914

First Letter: The Bulgarian and Serbian Treaty Before the War of 1912 November 2nd, 1914

Great Britain’s Declaration of War

Great Britain declared war on Germany because Germany broke a treaty, and by doing so, Britain gained eternal honor. In 1913, Bulgaria was forced to go to war with Serbia because Serbia broke a treaty. So, are treaties made by Great Powers more important than treaties made by smaller countries?

The Problem with Small Nations and Treaties

Since the Treaty of Berlin, which was one of the worst decisions in modern European history, the freedom of small nations has been ignored, and promises made to them have been broken. Military power and territorial greed have shaped the decisions of Europe’s leaders Sightseeing Turkey.

When Germany took control of Alsace and Lorraine, it made war between France and Germany inevitable. Similarly, if the Treaty of San Stefano had been respected, Bulgaria would have grown stronger and acted as a defense against aggression from more powerful neighbors.

The Treaty of Berlin’s Impact

The Treaty of Berlin placed the mainly Bulgarian population of Macedonia back under Turkish control. It also split the Bulgarian race into two smaller states. This decision put the Balkans at the mercy of powerful neighboring countries, and it set the stage for war between Austria and Russia, a war that was only a matter of time.

Britain’s Responsibility

The Growth of the Goriyani Resistance Movement

By the end of 1947, peasants made up 47% of those involved in the resistance movement in Bulgaria. This number grew significantly, reaching 70% between 1950 and 1951. After the opposition parties were eliminated, the communist government pushed forward with mass collectivization of land and the nationalization of private urban property. This effort followed the Soviet model closely and contributed to the spread of the Goriyani movement, an armed resistance group that fought against the communist regime.

The Spread of the Goriyani Movement

As the government continued to implement its policies, the Goriyani movement spread across the country. By the 1950s, almost every mountainous region in Bulgaria had active armed Goriyani detachments, supported by large numbers of local people. These resistance groups fought against the oppressive regime and its attempts to control rural life Private Bosphorus Tours.

Government’s Response Internal Military Battalions

The communist regime’s desperate efforts to eliminate the Goriyani resistance led to the creation of internal military battalions. By the end of 1948, the first battalions were formed. By October 1950, the number had increased to 10 battalions. These battalions were stationed in key cities, including Sofia, Plovdiv, Bourgas, Varna, Stara Zagora, Yambol, Blagoevgrad, and Belogradchik.

The Politburo of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party issued a decision to reorganize these internal military troops into a division. The number of battalions increased as the need for more troops grew. The mission of these military forces was clear: they were to fight and destroy the Goriyani detachments, and crush the entire resistance movement in Bulgaria.

The Role of the Military and State Security

The internal military forces were trained to operate like the Soviet Union’s internal forces. They were expected to be loyal to the Bulgarian Communist Party to the death. Along with the Bulgarian State Security forces, these battalions were tasked with eliminating the Goriyani resistance. Their goal was to wipe out the resistance and restore the government’s control over the country.

The 1919 Conference of Women Communists

The 1919 Conference of Women Communists

In 1919, a conference was held for women communists in Bulgaria. The women who attended were closely connected to the Bulgarian Communist Party (which was previously part of the “narrow” socialists). After this conference, the Women Communists started publishing two newspapers: Ravenstvo (Equality, 1919-1923) and Rabotnichka (Woman Worker). These newspapers spread Bolshevik ideas and supported the Communist Party’s activities Bulgaria Holidays.

Legal Trouble for Women Communists

During the 1920s, some women communists faced trials for their involvement in anti-state communist actions. However, many managed to escape to Soviet Russia, including well-known activists, such as the ones connected to Vela Blagoeva.

The Women’s Social-Democratic Union (1921)

Another important left-wing women’s group before World War II was the Women’s Social-Democratic Union, which was part of the international socialist movement. It was established in 1921 with the goal of educating working women both politically and civically. The organization aimed to research the living conditions of women and children and to attract and educate working women, preparing them for the realization of socialist ideals.

Leaders and Structure of the Women’s Social-Democratic Union

Most of the leaders in the Women’s Social-Democratic Union were the wives, sisters, or close relatives of prominent male activists from the Social-Democratic Party. These women included Yordanka Bozvelieva, Vera Sakuzova, Maria Dzhidrova, Yulia Sultanova, and Kina Konova. This pattern shows that, similar to other European countries, many women were drawn to socialist ideas through their male family members.

The Union’s Goals

My Room and Its Decorations

A Colorful Rug

The main decoration in my room was behind the bed. It was a brightly colored rug showing an Arab sheikh escaping with a beautiful woman. She was sitting on the horse’s neck, with her arms around her captor. In the background, there was an Eastern town full of mosques. The rug had as much art as the samplers that our grandmothers used to make, but it had a lot more color.

A Problematic French Door

The room also had a French door, but of course, it got stuck and wouldn’t open properly. The door led to a balcony that seemed so weak and unstable it looked like it could fall into the river below. But surprisingly, it didn’t fall, which puzzled me Ancient Bulgaria Tour.

A Quiet and Inexpensive Stay

I had definitely arrived in a quiet, out-of-the-way part of the world. For breakfast, I had six eggs, plenty of fresh butter, a plate of beans, and another plate of sliced tomatoes. I also had half a liter of wine and a cup of Turkish coffee. The total cost, including the meal for my driver, two glasses of brandy for him, and food for three horses, was just 1 shilling and 7½ pennies.

An Unpleasant Conversation

My conversation with the landlord, whose face looked sour, was short and not very helpful. But then, a cheerful and chubby little man appeared and excitedly said, “Me speak English!”

“Great,” I said, “Where did you learn it?”

“Me speak!” he repeated.

“Yes, I know,” I replied, “But where did you learn it? Did you learn in London?”

“No—small boy—ver’ small boy—two years—Australia; me Englishman; me speak eight languages. Me speak English good, eh?”

“Then can you please tell the landlord I want my room swept?”

The Scenery and My Discomfort

The scenery around me was beautiful, but I couldn’t fully enjoy it because I wasn’t staying at a comfortable hotel. The colourful leaves on the trees, the rushing river, and the grey, jagged rocks that looked like castles would have made for a wonderful description if I had been sitting on a hotel porch with no worries except waiting for dinner. Instead, I smoked my pipe, appreciated the beauty, and promised myself to come back when a hotel was built on the hill. Then, I went to the kitchen to check on the chickens that were being boiled.

Simple and Dark Living Conditions

In my room, the only light I had was a candle stuck in a crack in the floor. The floor also served as my seat and table. The soldiers were downstairs by the firelight, singing sad Turkish love songs. I used my boots as a pillow and kept my hands in my pockets to stay warm while I tried to sleep Istanbul Daily Tour.

The Mysterious Dawn

There’s something strange and eerie about traveling through an unfamiliar land at dawn. The light in the early morning is mysterious. As we set out for Elbasan, we all shivered in the cold. We had promised ourselves we’d reach the town by night, but we had to climb higher in the dark. None of us spoke because it was too cold to talk. The leaders of the group stayed close, and we climbed over rocky clefts. The animals hesitated at times, but kept going. As daybreak came, a thin haze covered the world, and clouds hung in the dark ravines below us, making the place look like a giant graveyard.

The Difficult Descent

Arrival at Sileohlu

We arrived at Sileohlu in the afternoon. It was a small, scattered place, with both Turkish and Bulgarian people living there. I had a headache from riding for so long in the hot sun with little food, so I decided to stop. I rested in the shade of a quince tree while my dragoman went to find a place for us to stay for the night.

Friendly Village Life

Some of the village leaders came to meet us—both Turks and Bulgarians, Christians and Muslims. They lived together peacefully, as I had seen in other places, unless there was trouble stirred up by political groups, which led to the Turkish authorities taking harsh actions. The mayor and a group from the local council wanted me to stay as their guest. I thanked them but insisted on paying for my stay. They insisted again, saying they just wanted to make sure I left with good memories of the village Socialist Museum.

A Stranger Welcomed

Here I was, a stranger, arriving in a village I had never heard of just twelve hours before. Yet, the head-man was eager to make me feel welcome, putting aside his own matters to be kind to me. I noticed there was a bit of rivalry between the Christians and Muslims, each group trying to show who could be the most helpful.

Resting in the Shade

The Prague Spring

The Prague Spring was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia that began in January 1968 and lasted until August 20, 1968. This movement worried the leaders of the communist parties in Bulgaria and other Eastern European countries under Soviet influence. The political changes in Czechoslovakia raised fears among these leaders, prompting them to take action.

Concerns of the Communist Leaders

As political liberalization unfolded in Czechoslovakia, the Bulgarian government, along with the Soviet Union, Poland, and Hungary, became increasingly concerned. The security services were given new tasks to monitor young people and intellectuals closely, fearing that similar movements could spread to their countries.

On August 3, 1968, party leaders from the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava. They signed the Bratislava Declaration, which reaffirmed their commitment to communist ideology and condemned bourgeois ideas. Todor Zhivkov, the leader of Bulgaria, was the first to suggest military intervention in Czechoslovakia, a proposal supported by other leaders Rose Festival Tour.

Open Letter from Czechoslovakia

In response to the situation, a group of Czechoslovak experts in Bulgarian language and literature sent an “Open Letter” to the Bulgarian weekly magazine “Literaturen Front.” In this letter, they expressed their concern about the false information being spread in the Bulgarian press regarding events in Czechoslovakia.

Military Intervention

On August 2, 1968, the Bulgarian Council of Ministers passed a secret decree, known as Decree No. 39. This decree authorized military support for the Czechoslovak people in their fight against what the Bulgarian government described as counter-revolution.

The military intervention, called “Operation Danube,” began on August 21, 1968. Joint forces from the Soviet Union, the German Democratic Republic, Poland, Bulgaria, and Hungary invaded Czechoslovakia. Bulgaria contributed two rifle regiments, the 12th and 22nd regiments, totaling 2,164 servicemen and 26 tanks.

Roles of the Bulgarian Regiments

The 12th regiment was tasked with taking control of the areas around the cities of Banska Bystrica and Zvolen, where they needed to disarm local military units. Meanwhile, the 22nd regiment was assigned to secure the Ruzyne and Vodohosti airports near Prague.

Tragically, one Bulgarian soldier from the 22nd regiment was killed during this operation. The soldiers sent to Czechoslovakia were conscripts, meaning they were drafted into service and often did not know their destination until the last moment. Many of these young men were deeply shocked by what they encountered.

Emotional Impact on Soldiers

As some conscripts later recounted, they were traumatized when they saw Czechoslovakian young people, similar in age to themselves, standing in front of their tanks in protest. This moment highlighted the emotional toll that the invasion took on the soldiers, who were caught in a conflict that they did not fully understand.

The Prague Spring

The Prague Spring was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia that began in January 1968 and lasted until August 20, 1968. This movement worried the leaders of the communist parties in Bulgaria and other Eastern European countries under Soviet influence. The political changes in Czechoslovakia raised fears among these leaders, prompting them to take action.

Concerns of the Communist Leaders

As political liberalization unfolded in Czechoslovakia, the Bulgarian government, along with the Soviet Union, Poland, and Hungary, became increasingly concerned. The security services were given new tasks to monitor young people and intellectuals closely, fearing that similar movements could spread to their countries.

On August 3, 1968, party leaders from the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava. They signed the Bratislava Declaration, which reaffirmed their commitment to communist ideology and condemned bourgeois ideas. Todor Zhivkov, the leader of Bulgaria, was the first to suggest military intervention in Czechoslovakia, a proposal supported by other leaders Rose Festival Tour.

Open Letter from Czechoslovakia

In response to the situation, a group of Czechoslovak experts in Bulgarian language and literature sent an “Open Letter” to the Bulgarian weekly magazine “Literaturen Front.” In this letter, they expressed their concern about the false information being spread in the Bulgarian press regarding events in Czechoslovakia.

Military Intervention

On August 2, 1968, the Bulgarian Council of Ministers passed a secret decree, known as Decree No. 39. This decree authorized military support for the Czechoslovak people in their fight against what the Bulgarian government described as counter-revolution.

The military intervention, called “Operation Danube,” began on August 21, 1968. Joint forces from the Soviet Union, the German Democratic Republic, Poland, Bulgaria, and Hungary invaded Czechoslovakia. Bulgaria contributed two rifle regiments, the 12th and 22nd regiments, totaling 2,164 servicemen and 26 tanks.

Roles of the Bulgarian Regiments

The 12th regiment was tasked with taking control of the areas around the cities of Banska Bystrica and Zvolen, where they needed to disarm local military units. Meanwhile, the 22nd regiment was assigned to secure the Ruzyne and Vodohosti airports near Prague.

Tragically, one Bulgarian soldier from the 22nd regiment was killed during this operation. The soldiers sent to Czechoslovakia were conscripts, meaning they were drafted into service and often did not know their destination until the last moment. Many of these young men were deeply shocked by what they encountered.

Emotional Impact on Soldiers

As some conscripts later recounted, they were traumatized when they saw Czechoslovakian young people, similar in age to themselves, standing in front of their tanks in protest. This moment highlighted the emotional toll that the invasion took on the soldiers, who were caught in a conflict that they did not fully understand.

Secret Nationalization Process in Bulgaria

The Start of Nationalization

Preparations for the nationalization of businesses in Bulgaria were conducted in complete secrecy. On December 22, 1947, even before the new Nationalization Bill was officially passed, the communists began expropriating businesses. This process was made deliberately simple: business owners were instructed to hand over the keys to their offices and safes to representatives of the Communist Party who suddenly appeared at their doorsteps.

The Expropriation Process

Once the keys were handed over, the owner had to sign a statement declaring that they were submitting their business to the “people’s government.” After this, they were allowed to leave, often just taking their coat. Meanwhile, factory loudspeakers announced that the government had decided to expropriate that particular business. This sudden and harsh action removed owners from their positions in industrial, banking, and trade enterprises.

The repercussions of this process were severe. Not only were the owners stripped of their working capital and bank deposits, but they also lost most of their personal property, including houses, jewelry, cars, and other belongings Istanbul Tour Guides.

Nationalization of the Banking Sector

On December 25, 1947, a Bill was passed that imposed a state monopoly over banking. As a result, 31 Bulgarian and foreign banks were nationalized. This move eliminated any remaining aspects of a market economy in Bulgaria. Instead, a new bureaucratic economy took its place, leaving no room for entrepreneurship. Management of the enterprises was handed over to party activists, who often lacked the necessary skills to run businesses effectively.

The End of Private Enterprise

By this time, not a single private enterprise was left in Bulgaria. There were no privately owned small craft shops or any other types of shops remaining. The sweeping nature of the nationalization marked a significant shift in the country’s economic landscape, effectively ending the era of private ownership.

Impact on Housing and Citizens

The campaign of expropriation extended beyond businesses to include the homes of certain citizens. During 1948, housing committees set up by the municipal councils began relocating owners of urban properties. They would often house Communist Party functionaries and loyal employees in the flats or houses of those labeled as “enemies of the people.” This included relatives of individuals who had been sent to labor camps, executed, or interned.

The Urban House Property Bill

The Bill for Urban House Property provided for the complete or partial expropriation of homes, flats, villas, and offices belonging to well-off citizens. This further exemplified the regime’s efforts to consolidate power and eliminate any remnants of private ownership in society.