#morphologies

Nominals

Nominals can modify each other in one of two ways, either as a genitive construction using the construct state, or simple apposition

Genitive constructions have the meaning “A-of-B” and consist of a nominal in the construct state followed immediately by another nominal. The final nominal is in the absolute state. The entire genitive construction acts as a single nominal with particles appearing before or after it as normal and never between nominals. The exception to this is the definite article which, as discussed below only ever appears before the nominal in the absolute state. In the romanisation, genitive constructions are hyphenated

Apposition is used to provide extra information about the head. It is used where English might use  an adjective (e.g. “a tall man”), a title (e.g. “king Alfred”), or a parenthetical phrase (e.g. “John, the doctor”). Nominals (and/or entire genitive phrases) appear in the absolute state one after the other with the first acting as a head. Subsequent nominals must agree with the first on number, gender (if possible), definiteness, and the presence of any modifying particles (i.e. any prepositions must be present on all nominals in apposition) but need not agree for any clitic pronouns

Definite Article

The definite article takes different forms depending on the start of the nominal it attaches to as shown above. Note that when attached to a vowel-initial nominal, the nominal loses its vowel

Proper nouns (whether the names of people or peoples, places, gods, etc) do not usually take the definite article but are still usually treated as definite for the purposes of agreement

Pronouns

Where two forms are listed, the former is the more common. In the case of nan vs anan, the latter is more common in literary writing. In the case of -o vs -im and -yu vs -ym, the second option is considered very informal and the former is more common

Independent pronouns are only used for emphasis or topicalisation, as in Latin. In general, conjugation or clitics are used instead. Clitic pronouns may attach to the absolute state of a nominal to express possession. Essentially, they are special forms of the pronouns used as the possessor (nomen rectum) in a genitive phrase

The primary clitics are the usual set and appear after consonants on independent nouns. The secondary set is used after vowels, and when attached to a genitive phrase

If the addition of a clitic pronoun would cause an illegal CCC cluster, an epenthetic -ə- (fronting to -e- before y) is inserted between the nominal and the clitic

Clitic pronouns may also be attached to finite verbs to indicate any object(s) of the verb. The first clitic pronoun attached represents the direct object, and a second represents the indirect object. These object pronouns are generally identical to the possessive clitic pronouns except in the 1st person where the singular and plural clitics are -ni and -nu (in both primary and secondary forms)

Verbs

Finite verbs inflect for aspect, person, number, and gender. There are also four non-finite forms, the verbal noun (also called the infinitive construct), the infinitive (also called the infinitive absolute), the active participle, and the passive participle. All the non-finite forms can be inflected as nominals except the infinitive which behaves as a particle. A given verb has five distinct stems, one in the finite forms, and one for each non-finite form

Where multiple forms are listed, the first is the most usual, with the options getting increasingly emphatic. The 3 f singular perfective ending is -a when not followed by a clitic pronoun, and -at when it is followed by a clitic pronoun. The -n(a) appearing in the imperfective and imperative forms is -n when this would not result in an illegal cluster, and -na when it would. The -t on the passive participle is usually present but not required

The perfective usually represents the present perfective. When clause initial in literary writing it can have a jussive meaning, and when non-initial it can represent a past perfective. In consecutive position it represents the same tense and aspect as the preceding verb

The imperfective usually represents the present, past, or future imperfective with the tense determined by context. It is used in both clauses of an “if-then” statement and so can represent both the subjunctive and conditional in such constructions. When clause-initial, in second place after the subject, or clause-initially following the particle l(ə)- “to”, it can have a jussive meaning.

The imperative is an imperative and is used for both positive and negative commands. The various jussive senses may also be used for weaker commands

The verbal noun usually represents an abstract action noun. It can also be used to express the subjunctive or jussive, in which case possessive clitics may optionally be used to express the subject, and a substantive subject may be placed in apposition. Following the particle b(ə)- “at” it has a temporal meaning, forming a “while” clause. The verbal noun is also used in many compound analytical forms

The infinitive may be used in a declarative sentence to represent the past perfective. When consecutive (including following the w- “and” conjunction), it has the same semantic tense and aspect as the preceding verb

The active participle may be used adverbially, adjectivally, and nominally, similar to active participles in many European languages. In a subordinate clause it may stand in for any other verb form, being unmarked for tense or aspect

The passive participle may be used  adverbially, adjectivally, and nominally, similar to active participles in many European languages. In a subordinate clause it may stand in for the passive past perfect (i.e. “had been”)

Verbs and Roots

Verbs are derived through a process of roots and patterns. Most roots consist of three consonants, but there are also roots consisting of two or four consonants. When a root is cast in a particular pattern “bənyun” (”construction”, cf Hebrew binyan), it becomes a verb with a specific meaning based on the root’s basic sense and the voice implicit in the bənyun. As the sense of the derived stems is not entirely predictable, it is part of derivation and not inflection

The G, G-, N, D, D-, C, C-, and tD stems occur with triliteral roots; the G2, G2-, N2, C2, and C2- stems occur with biliteral roots; and the G4, G4-, N4, C4, C4- stems occur with quadriliteral roots. Some bənyunim can occur with different vocalisations in which case all are listed

These are the forms of the bənyunim for “strong” verbs which are made from roots not containing, y, w, h, or an original ʔ or ʕ. Roots which do contain any of those consonants are called weak if it occurs in first or final position in the root, and hollow if it occurs internally to the root. The various singly weak and hollow roots are shown below

1-y:

1-w:

1-H:

H represents h or an original ʔ or ʕ. If an original ʔ, H is not pronounced with any vowels going into hiatus (and i or u reducing to y or w), whilst if H is an original ʕ it is preserved as h except between vowels, and if H is an original h or ḥ it is always preserved as h. Contraction occurs even if the two vowels are identical. iHi > yay when H represents an original ʔ or ʕ though

2-y:

2-w:

2-H:

H represents h or an original ʔ or ʕ. If an original ʔ, H is not pronounced with any vowels going into hiatus (and i or u reducing to y or w), whilst if H is an original ʕ it is preserved as h except between vowels, and if H is an original h or ḥ it is always preserved as h. Contraction occurs even if the two vowels are identical. iHi > yay when H represents an original ʔ or ʕ though

3-y:

3-w:

3-H:

H represents h or an original ʔ or ʕ. If an original ʔ, H is not pronounced with any vowels going into hiatus (and i or u reducing to y or w), whilst if H is an original ʕ it is preserved as h except between vowels, and if H is an original h or ḥ it is always preserved as h. Contraction occurs even if the two vowels are identical. iHi > yay when H represents an original ʔ or ʕ though

4-y:

4-w:

4-H:

H represents h or an original ʔ or ʕ. If an original ʔ, H is not pronounced with any vowels going into hiatus (and i or u reducing to y or w), whilst if H is an original ʕ it is preserved as h except between vowels, and if H is an original h or ḥ it is always preserved as h. Contraction occurs even if the two vowels are identical. iHi > yay when H represents an original ʔ or ʕ though

All inflection is shown in both romanisation and the Hebrew alphabet; this alphabet is not the actual orthography of Qartadšoti, but each Hebrew letter is to be understood as standing in for the corresponding Punic letter. The letter ח et is to be understood as implying whichever laryngeal (א alf, ה‬ e, or ח et) was originally present in the root

Nominals

This is a summary of the most common forms used. The absolute is used for any noun not in a genitive construction, for nouns without a possessor, the governed state is identical with the absolute. Possessors can only be applied to absolute or governed state nouns

Nominals can modify other nominals in one of two ways, either in a genitive construction, or in apposition. Genitive constructions have the meaning “[nominal 1] of [nominal 2]” or “[nominal 2]’s [nominal 1]”, this is accomplished by putting [nominal 1] in the construct state, and [nominal 2] in the governed state; this can be chained (e.g. “son of the man of the city”) in which case all but the last nominal are in the construct state. A nominal not in a genitive construction is in the absolute state. Particles are applied to the genitive construction as a whole, appearing either before the first construct nominal, or after the governed nominal, never between nominals; the exception to this is the definite article which may only appear immediately before the governed nominal where it has the sense of making the entire phrase definite

Apposition is used for situations where English might use an adjective (e.g. “a tall man”), a title (e.g. “king Alfred”), or a parenthetical phrase (e.g. “John, the doctor”), in it, nominals in the absolute state (and/or entire genitive phrases) simply follow each other, with the first acting as the head. Subsequent nominals must agree with the first on number, and gender, as well as the presence of any modifying particles (e.g. if the head is modified by a preposition, all appositional nominals must also be modified by the same preposition, likewise with the definite article, or the direct object particle)

This is the complete list of forms, showing how the governed state can differ from the absolute state. It also shows the dual forms which are mostly obsolete except occasionally as a collective noun  for pairs where it takes singular agreement. The governed forms with possessors show residual evidence of the old genitive -i lost in other instances, as well as some other unexpected differences

There are a small number of nominals which take the endings of the opposite gender from the one they trigger in agreement, there are also some which take singular endings but agree as plural, or vice versa

Definite Article

The definite article can be attached to nominals in the absolute or governed state; as such it can only attach to the final nominal in a genitive phrase (which has the effect of making the whole phrase definite). If attached to any nominals (or genitive phrases) in an apposition chain, it must be attached to all of them. Personal names always count as definite and so any nominals in apposition with one must take the definite article

i.e. a nominal beginning with a consonant (other than j or w) is made definite by prefixing the vowel y and geminating the initial consonant; a nominal beginning with a j or i is made definite by replacing that j or i with an e; a nominal beginning with a w or u is made definite by replacing that w or u with an o; and a nominal beginning with any other vowel is made definite by prefixing the vowel a

Verbs

Verbs inflect for TAM (appearing in a perfective suffix conjugation, an imperfective prefix conjugation, and an imperative), as well as the person, number, and (in all persons except the first) the gender of the subject. There are also two participles (an active and a passive one), a verbal noun, and an infinitive

In certain forms, the stem might contain illegal consonant clusters (particularly as initial clusters are generally not allowed) and so be broken up with an epenthetic vowel y

Verbs are derived from triliteral roots cast into a particular stem, called a bynjun “construction” (cf. Hebrew binyan) which can be identified with a letter, or traditionally the form of the root פ-ע-ל, f-a-l “do” in that stem which is the verb traditionally used to illustrate verb inflection, for these purposes though we will use the strong root ק-ת-ל, q-t-l “kill" (although this root usually appears with an emphatic second consonant, as in the Hebrew form but not the Arabic one). The usual meaning (related to the basic fal G stem) is given in the final column although these are only generalisations and aren’t always followed

Bynjunim

The G stem conjugates as follows:

The G- stem conjugates as follows:

The N stem conjugates as follows:

The D stem conjugates as follows:

The D- stem conjugates as follows:

The C stem conjugates as follows:

The C- stem conjugates as follows:

The tG stem conjugates as follows:

The Dt stem conjugates as follows:

Weak Roots

Additionally, roots containing a י i, ו u. ע a, א e, ה e, ח e are “weak” because those consonants are lost in many forms, frequently with effects left behind on the vowels. Listing the entire conjugation of each stem is beyond the scope of this post, but the list of derived stems for each possible singly-weak root (i.e. a root containing a single weak consonant) are given below. Doubly or triply weak roots can be mostly worked out from this. For these tables below, we use the same root as above, but with the appropriate consonant replaced with the weak consonant. Again, the letter ח et is to be understood as implying whichever laryngeal (א alf, ה‬ e, or ח et) was originally present in the root

The derived stems of the 1-i roots are:

The derived stems of the 1-u roots are:

The derived stems of the 1-a roots are:

The derived stems of the 1-e roots are:

The derived stems of the 2-j roots are:

The derived stems of the 2-u roots are:

The derived stems of the 2-a roots are:

The derived stems of the 2-e roots are:

The derived stems of the 3-i roots are:

The derived stems of the 3-u roots are:

The derived stems of the 3-a roots are:

The derived stems of the 3-e roots are:

Other Roots

Some roots are not triliteral though, in particular, there are biliteral and quadriliteral roots (and some borrowings with more consonants), they only occur in a reduced set of derived stems which are shown below, the root used here is ק-ל, q-l, and ק-ת-ס-ל, q-t-s-l for biliteral and quadriliteral roots respectively:

Pronouns

Pronouns rarely appear explicitly and usually only appear as clitics on verbs instead, or being expressed in the conjugation of the verb. There are clitic forms which may be attached to a verb to mark its objects. If this is done, the direct object is placed on the verb before any indirect object. The clitic pronouns are essentially identical to the possessive suffixes of nominals and take distinct forms depending on whether the form they are attached to ends in a consonant or a vowel

There are also proximal and distal demonstratives which are placed after a definite nominal or genitive phrase. The distal demonstratives are identical to the third person pronouns

Nouns:

Āssr declension (a/o-stems)

Īsr declension (i-stems)

Ūrr declension (u-stems)

Nōuðr declension (n-stems)

Rǣiðō declension (r-stems)

Daghr declension (consonant stems)

Adjectives:

Adjectives only retain the weak declension, so are identical to the nōuðr declension with all plurals taking the neuter plural forms.

Numbers:

Numbers follow a special, slightly reduced form of the usual adjective declension

Derivational Morphology:

comparatives: take the suffix -er- between the stem and inflectional ending

superlatives: take the suffix -est- between the stem and inflectional ending

adverbs: “-ly”-type adverbs may be formed by 0-derivation from the neuter nominative (the citation form), i.e. “angrily” = “angry-n-nm-sg”

adjectives themselves: “-y”-type adjectives may be derived from nouns with a suffix -gh- after the characteristic consonant or vowel of that declension, and before the adjective stem. Due to historical sound changes, this has split into the following suffices attached directly to a noun’s stem

Āssr declension: take the suffix ᵃ-agh- if masculine or neuter, -ogh- if feminine

Īsr declension: take ⁱ-egh-

Ūrr declension: take ᵘ-ogh-

Nōuðr declension: take  ᵃ-eng-

Rǣiðō declension: take -regh-

Daghr declension: take -egh-

Pronouns:

1st & 2nd person and reflexive pronouns:

1st person inclusive is used if there is at least one 2nd person referent, if all other referents are 3rd person, the exclusive is used; 2nd person inclusive is used if and only if all referents are present, otherwise the exclusive is used

The reflexive is used to replace a noun phrase in the sentence if it refers to the identical referent as the first argument mentioned (which will usually be the subject)

3rd person pronouns:

Definite Articles:

Indefinite Articles:

Proximal Demonstrative “this”:

Distal Demonstrative “that”:

Interrogative “who/what”:

Relativiser “which/that”:

this declines for the gender and number in the main clause, and the case in the relative clause. It constitutes the first element of the relative clause so is immediately followed by the conjugated verb

It is a compound of the genitive form of the definite article, and the reflexive pronoun. In poetry, these two parts are sometimes separated

Verbs:

Strong Verbs:

The citation form is the present infinitive; there is also plenty of umlaut, as well as ablaut between the 4 distinct stems (the 4 stems are given unumlauted in the lexicon). These 4 stems are mostly predictable though from the first unumlauted stem as the ablaut is generally regular with the tonic vowel alternating as follows:

In the past tense, the stem of class 1-6 verbs take a prefix ge- or g- (the latter if the verb stem begins in a vowel) attached immediately to the verb stem, before any preverb. In class 7 verbs, the stem reduplicates in the past tense instead i.e. (s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... > (s)(C1)e(s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... Again this reduplication appears before any preverb

Weak Verbs:

Weak verbs follow the same conjugation as strong verbs, mapped onto a specific class depending on the tonic vowel of the verb stem according to the above table specifying the ablaut of originally weak verbs

Again, in the past tense, the stem of class 1-6 verbs take a prefix ge- or g- (the latter if the verb stem begins in a vowel) attached immediately to the verb stem, before any preverb. In class 7 verbs, the stem reduplicates in the past tense instead i.e. (s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... > (s)(C1)e(s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... Again this reduplication appears before any preverb

Preterite-Present Verbs:

Preterite-Present verbs follow the usual past-tense conjugation in the present tense (as in other Germanic languages); unlike other Germanic languages however, they do not have a weak past-tense, but instead a past-tense with the same endings, but with the 4th stem

Preterite-Present verbs follow the same ablaut patterns as weak verbs, derived from the tonic vowel of the verb stem. If this results in a present tense form with a null vowel, an /e/ is inserted instead

Again, in the past tense, the stem of class 1-6 verbs take a prefix ge- or g- (the latter if the verb stem begins in a vowel) attached immediately to the verb stem, before any preverb. In class 7 verbs, the stem reduplicates in the past tense instead i.e. (s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... > (s)(C1)e(s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... Again this reduplication appears before any preverb

Umlaut Table: