The history of Chinese imperial rule traditionally begins with the semi-legendary Xia dynasty (traditionally dated c. 2070–1600 BCE) and unfolds through a succession of ruling houses that shaped one of the world’s most continuous state traditions. From the Shang (c. 1600–1046 BCE) and Zhou (c. 1046–256 BCE), which articulated the Mandate of Heaven as a principle of dynastic legitimacy, to the Qin unification under Qin Shi Huang (reign 221–210 BCE) and the consolidation of imperial institutions under the Han (206 BCE–220 CE), Chinese emperors governed vast territories through evolving administrative systems. Across periods of unity and fragmentation, imperial authority rested on bureaucratic governance, Confucian state ideology, and control over agrarian and commercial resources.
