#manufacturing techniques

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3D printing has evolved into a powerful tool in modern manufacturing, transforming how products are created and delivered to consumers. Once a process used primarily for prototyping, it is now a critical part of manufacturing strategies that allow companies to produce custom parts quickly and cost-effectively. The technology has unlocked new possibilities for industries such as aerospace, healthcare, automotive, and consumer goods, where precision and customization are essential.

From bleach and disinfectants to crop protection chemicals and airbags to corn syrup and cosmetics, chlorine underlies the manufacture of an array of indispensable everyday products. Although a naturally-occurring chemical element thanks to its high reactivity, chlorine exists predominantly in compounds. Scientists have identified over 2,000 of them in various places and organisms, including human beings. To obtain chlorine in its pure form, people must separate the compounds. Sodium chloride (NaCl) or table salt is among the most common natural sources of chlorine found in ocean water and mineral deposits formed after the drying up of ancient oceans. The World Chlorine Council (WCC), an international representative organization for the chlorine and chlorinated products industries, reports that over 97 percent of the world chlorine is manufactured via the chlor-alkali process. It involves the electrolysis of NaCl or potassium chloride (KCl) solutions and dates back to 1888. During the chlor-alkali process, a direct electrical current is applied to salt and water solution, called brine, which leads to the rearrangement of the ions and the production of chlorine gas (Cl2) and alkali, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), or potassium hydroxide (KOH), and hydrogen gas (H2). The chlor-alkali industry uses several electrolytic production techniques: the membrane, diaphragm, and mercury cell techniques. In all of them, the electric current flows through electrodes submerged in the brine: positively charged anodes and negatively charged cathodes. According to the WCC, in 2021, the membrane technique and the diaphragm technique are the most widely used ways for chlorine manufacturing, with 83 percent and 12.5 percent, respectively. International agreements on the use of mercury, like the Minamata Convention, have led to discontinuing the mercury cell technique, and thus, it is the least common with 2.1 percent. The remaining 2.5 percent employ other techniques that use hydrochloric acid (HCl) to get chlorine and hydrogen or metal salts to produce chlorine and specific metal like magnesium or nickel. In the membrane cell technique, a perfluorinated polymer ion exchange membrane separates the anodes and the cathodes. High-purity brine flows through the anode compartment, where the oxidation of the chloride ions forms chlorine gas. The cation-selective membranes cause the sodium ions and water to migrate to the cathode compartment. After the reduction of water to hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions, the latter combine with the sodium ions to create NaOH. The produced via this technique sodium hydroxide is typically about 30 percent to 35 percent, which can be further concentrated to 50 percent with the help of evaporators. In the diaphragm cell technique, the separation between the cathode and the anode is via a diaphragm coated with a layer of asbestos fiber combined with an additive such as polytetrafluoroethylene, commonly known as Teflon, or other artificial asbestos-free fiber. A nearly saturated brine added to the anode compartment flows through the diaphragm to the cathode one. In the anolyte section, following oxidation, the chloride ions produce Cl2; in the cathode compartment, the H2 and the hydroxide ions are produced. Sodium ions pass from the anode section through the diaphragm to the cathode one to create cell liquor with 10 percent to 12 percent NaOH concentration. Some chloride ions also pass the diaphragm to form cell liquor with 16 percent sodium chloride. Again using evaporation, the NaOH cell liquor is further concentrated to 50 percent. The NaCl recovered during the evaporation is added back to the brine and reused. In the phasing out mercury cell technique, a stream of flowing mercury serves as the cathode. The anode is parallelly suspended just a few millimeters above it. Brine enters at one end of the cell box and flows between the electrodes driven by gravity. Chlorine gas production happens at the anode. The sodium ions, set down along the surface of the flowing mercury cathode, dissolve in the mercury forming a liquid amalgam. Pulled by gravity, the amalgam flows from the electrolyzer to a decomposer filled with carbon. There, deionized water is added, which removes the alkali metal from the mercury, resulting in hydrogen and 50 percent NaOH. A pump brings back the mercury to the cell inlet, and the whole process repeats.

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Process manufacturing Techniques. Follow this steps.

Making a steam locomotive back in 1939.

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