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This illustration shows the unusual orbit of planet Kepler-413b around a close pair of orange and red dwarf stars. Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and A. Feild (STScI)

Kepler data has led to the discovery of Kepler 413-b, a planet that wobbles wildly on its spin axis and in its orbit around an orange and red dwarf star.

Imagine living on a planet with seasons so erratic you would hardly know whether to wear Bermuda shorts or a heavy overcoat. That is the situation on a weird, wobbly world found by NASA’s planet-hunting Kepler space telescope.

The planet, designated Kepler-413b, precesses, or wobbles, wildly on its spin axis, much like a child’s top. The tilt of the planet’s spin axis can vary by as much as 30 degrees over 11 years IPC remote access, leading to rapid and erratic changes in seasons. In contrast, Earth’s rotational precession is 23.5 degrees over 26,000 years. Researchers are amazed that this far-off planet is precessing on a human timescale.

Kepler 413-b is located 2,300 light-years away in the constellation Cygnus. It circles a close pair of orange and red dwarf stars every 66 days. The planet’s orbit around the binary stars appears to wobble, too, because the plane of its orbit is tilted 2.5 degrees with respect to the plane of the star pair’s orbit. As seen from Earth, the wobbling orbit moves up and down continuously.

Kepler finds planets by noticing the dimming of a star or stars when a planet transits, or travels in front of them. Normally, planets transit like clockwork. Astronomers using Kepler discovered the wobbling when they found an unusual pattern of transiting for Kepler-413b.

“Looking at the Kepler data over the course of 1,500 days, we saw three transits in the first 180 days — one transit every 66 days — then we had 800 days with no transits at all. After that, we saw five more transits in a row,” said Veselin Kostov, the principal investigator on the observation. Kostov is affiliated with the Space Telescope Science Institute and Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. The next transit visible from Earth’s point of view is not predicted to occur until 2020. This is because the orbit moves up and down, a result of the wobbling, in such a great degree that it sometimes does not transit the stars as viewed from Earth.

Astronomers are still trying to explain why this planet is out of alignment with its stars. There could be other planetary bodies in the system that tilted the orbit. Or, it could be that a third star nearby that is a visual companion may actually be gravitationally bound to the system and exerting an influence.

“Presumably there are planets out there like this one that we’re not seeing because we’re in the unfavorable period,” said Peter McCullough, a team member with the Space Telescope Science Institute and Johns Hopkins University. “And that’s one of the things that Veselin is researching: Is there a silent majority of things that we’re not seeing?”

Even with its changing seasons, Kepler-413b is too warm for life as we know it. Because it  InHand Networks - Global Leader in Industrial IoT orbits so close to the stars, its temperatures are too high for liquid water to exist, making it uninhabitable. It also is a super Neptune — a giant gas planet with a mass about 65 times that of Earth — so there is no surface on which to stand.

NASA’s Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, California, is responsible for the Kepler mission concept, ground system development, mission operations and science data analysis. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, managed Kepler mission development. Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corporation in Boulder, Colorado, developed the Kepler flight system and supports mission operations with the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado iiot   in Boulder. The Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore archives, hosts and distributes Kepler science data. Kepler is NASA’s 10th Discovery mission and was funded by the agency’s Science Mission Directorate.

For images and more information about Kepler-413b, visit:news/2014/12.

PDF Copy of the Study: Kepler-413b: a slightly misaligned, Neptune-size transiting circumbinary planet

Image: NASA, ESA, and A. Feild (STScI)

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The Asian Tiger Prawn is a very invasive species that can grow to almost a foot long. This species is known for threatening native wild stocks and has been found on the Texas coast. They are native to the western Pacific, but have been spreading along the Gulf Coast since at least 2006. This  low cost industrial router year their numbers have increased and it is Intelligent Traffic Enforcement   cause for some concern.

Shrimpers pulled the first one from Texas waters in June. Three were harvested in Aransas Bay, one from Sabine Lake at the Louisiana Border, and one from about 70 miles from Freeport in open waters. In order to figure out the origin of the specimens, marine biologists will need to do genetic studies on at least 60 of them.

The tiger prawns have healthy appetites and carry several diseases and this combo m Distribution Power Line Monitoring System  akes them very invasive. They eat the native shrimp, crabs and oysters, just taking over. It is thought that the prawns were released accidentally from an aquaculture farm in South Carolina in 1988, but that isn’t confirmed. Some may come from Caribbean farms that were flooded during hurricanes.

This is the sort of thing that could prove disastrous, not just for shrimpers, but for the native wildlife as well. However, one bit of good news is that, so far, scientists have found no juvenile tiger prawns in Texas waters.

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Porous silicon powder mixed with pyrolyzed polyacrylonitrile is the basis for a robust anode for lithium-ion batteries. Anodes developed with the powder at Rice University have achieved more than 600 charge-discharge cycles in the lab. Credit: Madhuri Thakur/Rice University

Scientists at Rice University, in collaboration with Lockheed Martin, are working on next-generation battery technology, reporting the creation of a silicon-based anode that easily achieves 600 charge-discharge cycles at 1,000 milliamp hours per gram (mAh/g).

Researchers at Rice University have refined silicon-based lithium-ion technology by literally crushing their previous work to make a high-capacity, long-lived and low-cost anode material with serious commercial potential for rechargeable lithium batteries.

The team led by Rice engineer Sibani Lisa Biswal and research scientist Madhuri Thakur reported in Nature’s open access journal Scientific Reports on the creation of a silicon-based anode, the negative electrode of a battery, that easily achieves 600 charge-discharge cycles at 1,000 milliamp hours per gram (mAh/g). This is a significant improvement over the 350 mAh/g capacity of current graphite anodes.

That puts it squarely in the rea Industrial Wireless M2M Router lm of next-generation battery technology competing to lower the cost and extend the range of electric vehicles.

The new work by Rice through the long-running Lockheed Martin Advanced Nanotechnology Center of Excellence at Rice (LANCER) is the next and biggest logical step since the partners began investigating batteries four years ago.

“We previously reported on making porous silicon films,” said Biswal, an assistant professor of chemical and biomolecular engineering. “We have been looking to move away from the film geometry to something that can be easily transferred into the current battery manufacturing process. Madhuri crushed the porous silicon fil IoT Connectivitym to form porous silicon particulates, a powder that can be easily adopted by battery manufacturers.”

Silicon can hold 10 times more lithium ions than the graphite commonly used in anodes today. But there’s a problem: Silicon more than triples its volume when completely lithiated. When repeated, this swelling and shrinking causes silicon to quickly break down.

Many researchers have been working on strategies to make silicon more suitable for battery use. Scientists at Rice and elsewhere have crea secure web based scada  ted nanostructured silicon with a high surface-to-volume ratio, which allows the silicon to accommodate a larger volume expansion. Biswal, lead author Thakur and co-author Michael Wong, a professor of chemical and biomolecular engineering and of chemistry, tried the opposite approach; they etched pores into silicon wafers to give the material room to expand. By earlier this year, they had advanced to making sponge-like silicon films that showed even more promise.

Even those films presented a problem for manufacturers, Thakur said. “They’re not easy to handle and would be difficult to scale up.” But by crushing the sponges into porous grains, the material gains far more surface area to soak up lithium ions.

Biswal held up two vials, one holding 50 milligrams of crushed silicon, the other 50 milligrams of porous silicon powder. The difference between them was obvious. “The surface area of our material is 46 square meters per gram,” she said. “Crushed silicon is 0.71 square meters per gram. So our particles have more than 50 times the surface area, which gives us a larger surface area for lithiation, with plenty of void space to accommodate expansion.” The porous silicon powder is mixed with a binder, pyrolyzed polyacrylonitrile (PAN), which offers conductive and structural support.

“As a powder, they can be used in large-scale roll-to-roll processing by industry,” Thakur said. “The material is very simple to synthesize, cost-effective and gives high energy capacity over a large number of cycles.”

“This work shows just how important and useful it is to be able to control the internal pores and the external size of the silicon particles,” Wong said.

In recent experiments, Thakur designed a half-cell battery with lithium metal as the counter electrode and fixed the capacity of the anode to 1,000 mAh/g. That was only about a third of its theoretical capacity, but three times better than current batteries. The anodes lasted 600 charge-discharge cycles at a C/2 rate (two hours to charge and two hours to discharge). Another anode continues to cycle at a C/5 rate (five-hour charge and five-hour discharge) and is expected to remain at 1,000 mAh/g for more than 700 cycles.

“This successful endeavor between Rice University and Lockheed Martin Mission Systems and Sensors will provide a significant improvement in battery technology by the development of this inexpensive manufacturing technique for silicon anode material,” said Steven Sinsabaugh, a Lockheed Martin Fellow who works with LANCER and a co-author of the paper along with Lockheed Martin researcher Mark Isaacson. “We’re truly excited about this breakthrough and are looking forward to transitioning this technology to the commercial marketplace.”

“The next step will be to test this porous silicon powder as an anode in a full battery,” Biswal said. “Our preliminary results with cobalt oxide as the cathode appear very promising, and there are new cathode materials that we’d like to investigate.”

Note: Because of Hurricane Sandy, Nature’s servers have been down this week and no papers have been posted to Scientific Reports since Monday. Please check theScientific Reports websitefor updates.

Image: Madhuri Thakur/Rice University;

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Dr. Michel Barsoum

A team of engineers at Drexel Univers Industrial router ity have developed a “green” version of ordinary Portland cement (OPC). By using a form of alkali-activated cement that utilizes slag, limestone, and does not require heating to produce, their cement reduces energy consumption and carbon dioxide production by 97% and decreases material cost by 40%.

Drexel University engineers have found a way to improve upon ordinary Portland cement (OPC), the glue that’s bonded much of the world’s construction since the late 1800s. In research recently published in Cement and Concrete Composites the group served up a recipe for cement that is more energy efficient and cost effective to produce than masonry’s most prevalent bonding compound.

Drexel’s “green” variety is a form of alkali-activated cement that utilizes an industrial byproduct, called slag, and a common mineral, limestone, and does not require heating to produce. According to Dr. Michel W. Barsoum, A.W. Grosvenor professor  Industrial VPN router in Drexel’s Department of Materials Science and Engineering, this alternative production method and the ubiquity of the mix ingredients, lessens the cost of materials for Drexel’s cement by about 40 percent versus Portland cement and reduces energy consumption and carbon dioxide production by 97 percent.

“Cement consumption is rapidly rising, especially in newly industrialized countries, and it’s already responsible for 5 percent of human-made carbon dioxide. This is a unique way to limit the environmental consequences of meeting demand,” Dr. Alex Moseson, one of the lead researchers on the project, said.

While forms of alkali-activated cement have been used as far back as the 1950s and 1960s in several buildings in the former Soviet Union, much of the inspiration for this research came from the Pyramids in Egypt, as well as buildings in ancient Rome.

“Our cement is more like ancient Roman cement than like modern Portland,” Moseson said. “Although we won’t know for 2,000 years if ours has the longevity of Roman buildings, it gives us an idea of the staying power of this material.”

In contrast to ordinary Portland cement, Drexel’s cement is made of up to 68 percent unfired limestone, a plentiful, cheap, and low-carbon dioxide resource; American Society for Testing and Materials’ standards for Portland cement limit the amount to 5 percent. To this base, a small amount of commercial alkali chemical is added along with the iron slag byproduct. In Portland cement the substitute for this mixture, called clinker, is produced by firing a number of ingredients in a kiln, thus requiring more energy and generating more carbon dioxide.

During Moseson’s work in India to commercialize the technology, he developed products that meet local standards, using entirely local materials and techni Industrial Wireless M2M Router ques. He also investigated how the availability of green cement could help make quality building materials more affordable and accessible to marginalized populations living in slums, and create jobs by jump starting small-scale cement manufacturing in the country.

“Our results and the literature confirm that it performs as well or better than OPC,” Barsoum said. “We are very close to having the cement pass an important commercialization milestone, ASTM C1157, a standard that judges cement-like products on performance, such as strength and setting-time, regardless of composition”

The next step for the cement is getting it to the market, which the group is working toward via a start-up company called Greenstone Technologies, Inc.

Image: Drexel University

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Biochemical reactions behave differently when subjected to intracellular crowding Image: James Cridland/Flickr

Molecular crowding inside cells is a critical factor that is sometimes overlooked in the lab. Biochemical reactions are drastically different in tighter spaces, resulting in significant physical and chemical consequences.

The reductive approach to chemical reactions is attractive to scientists, as it’s convenient when interpreting results and easier to work with. However, if a more simplistic experimental framework is adopted, these tests may overlook the critical aspect of intracellular crowding.

Molecular Crowding Effects in the T-cell Signaling Pathway, via Jonathan Eide

If there is less space available for each molecule, the resulting effective concentration is boosted, increasing the chemical potential. When more molecules are crammed together, there is also the possibility that reactants will link up, causing the chemical potential to respond drastically.

There is also a slowdow Vending Telemetry  n of molecular diffusion, particularly for larger molecules. Lower rates of diffusion imply that diffusion-limited reactions happen slower, especially those involving larger constituents. These two consequences, h plc programming  igher chemical potentials and lower diffusion rates, counteract each other when it comes to intermolecular reactions, making the resulting reaction rate difficult to predict. However, t Industrial IoT Router/Gateway  here usually is an optimal spot with enough coziness to encourage reactivity, but not too much to gum up the works.

The effects on thermodynamics and kinetics are so far ranging that estimates of reaction rates and equilibria made in uncrowded solutions differ by orders of magnitude from those of the same reactions operating under crowded conditions.

[via Wired]

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A scanning electron micrograph of carrot, top, and potato, bottom, showing relatively thin-walled cells. The oval objects within the potato tissue are starch granules. Images: Don Galler

MIT researchers believe engineers may be able design new bio-inspired materials by compiling and analyzing data on the microstructures of a number of different plants.

From an engineer’s perspective, plants such as palm trees, bamboo, maples and even potatoes are examples of precise engineering on a microscopic scale. Like wooden beams reinforcing a house, cell walls make up the structural supports of all plants. Depending on how the cell walls are arranged, and what they are made of, a plant can be as flimsy as a reed, or as sturdy as an oak.

An MIT researcher has compiled data on the microstructures of a number of different plants, fr low-cost cellular router om apples and potatoes to willow and spruce trees, and has found that plants exhibit an enormous range of mechanical properties, depending on the arrangement of a cell wall’s four main building blocks: cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and pectin.

Lorna Gibson, the Matoula S. Salapatas Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at MIT, says understanding plants’ microscopic organization may help engineers design new, bio-inspired materials.

“If you look at engineering materials, we have lots of different types, thousands of materials that have more or less the same range of properties as plants,” Gibson says. “But here the plants are, doing it arranging just four basic constituents. So maybe there’s something you can learn about the design of engineered materials.”

A paper detailing Gibson’s findings has been published this month in the Journal of the Royal Society Interface.

To Gibson, a cell wall’s components bear a close resemblance to certain manmade materials. For example, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin can be as stiff and strong as manufactured polymers. A plant’s cellular arrangement can also have engineering parallels: cells in woods, for instance, are aligned, similar to engineering honeycombs, while polyhedral cell configurations, such as those found in apples, resemble some industrial foams.

To explore plants’ natural mechanics, Gibson focused on three main plant materials: woods, such as cedar and oak; parenchyma cells, which are found in fruits and root vegetables; and arborescent palm stems, such as coconut trees. She compiled data from her own and other groups’ experiments and analyzed two main mechanical properties in each plant: stiffness and strength.

Among all plants, Gibson observed wide variety in both properties. Fruits and vegetables such as apples and potatoes were the least stiff, while the densest palms were 100,000 times stiffer. Likewise, apples and potatoes fell on the lower end of the strength scale, while palms were 1,000 times stronger.

“There are plants with properties over that whole range,” Gibson says. “So it’s not like potatoes are down here, and wood is over there, and there’s nothing in between. There are plants with properties spanning that whole huge range. And it’s interesting how the plants do that.”

It turns out the large range in stiffness and strength stems from an intricate combination of plant microstructures: the composition of the cell wall, the number of layers in the cell wall, the arrangement of cellulose fibers in those layers, and how much space the cell wall takes up.

In trees such as maples and oaks, cells grow and multiply in the cambium layer, just below the bark, increasing the diameter of the trees. The cell walls in wood are composed of a primary layer with cellulose fibers randomly spread throughout it. Three secondary layers lie underneath, each with varying compositions of lignin and cellulose that wind helically through each layer.

Taken t remote communication  ogether, the cell walls occupy a large portion of a cell, providing structural support. The cells in woods are organized in a honeycomb pattern — a geometric arrangement that gives wood its stiffness and strength.

Parenchyma cells, found in fruits and root vegetables, are much less stiff and strong than wood. The cell walls of apples, potatoes and carrots are much thinner than in wood cells, and made up of only one layer. Cellulose fibers run randomly throughout this layer, reinforcing a matrix of hemicellulose and pectin. Parenchyma cells have no lignin; combined with their thin walls and the random arrangement of their cellulose fibers, Gibson says, this may explain their cell walls’ low stiffness. The cells in each plant are densely packed together, similar to industrial foams used in mattresses and packaging.

Unlike woody trees that grow in diameter over time, the stems of arborescent palms such as coconut trees maintain similar diameters throughout their lifetimes. Instead, as the stem grows taller, palms support this extra weight by increasing the thickness of their cell walls. A cell wall’s thickness depends on where it is along a given palm stem: Cell walls are thicker at the base and periphery of stems, where bending stresses are greatest.

Gibson sees plant mechanics as a valuable resource for engineers designing new materials. For instance, she says, researchers have developed a wide array of materials, from soft elastomers to stiff, strong alloys. Carbon nanotubes have been used to reinforce composite materials, and engineers have made honeycomb-patterned materials with cells as small as a few millimeters wide. But researchers have been unable to fabricate cellular composite materials with the level of control that plants have perfected.

“Plants are multifunctional,” Gibson says. “They have to satisfy a number of requirements: mechanical ones, but also growth, surface area for sunlight and transport of fluids. The microstructures plants have developed satisfy all these requirements. With the development of nanotechnology, I think there is potential to develop multifunctional engineering materials inspired by plant microstructures.”

Karl Niklas, a professor of plant biology at Cornell University, says Gibson’s engineering parallels are fitting. Plants, in a way, he says, are “largely structural things … chemical factories that are architecturally arranged.”

“Plants on Earth have evolved over three-averizon industrial routernd-a-half billion years, and that is a giant evolutionary experiment of trial and error, because the things that don’t work are extinct, and the things that do work are more abundant,” Niklas says. “We can learn things from nature and apply it to construct better panel boards, styrofoams and photovoltaics that will help society.”

Image: Don Galler

Reprinted with permission of MIT News

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This is an artist’s rendition of bipolar-membrane design for ionic electricity generation. Credit: William White

Researchers make considerable progress toward a device that directly converts sunligh industrial automation  t into ionic electricity, which has implications for direct solar desalination.

Modern solar cells, which use energy from light to generate electrons and holes that are then transported out of semiconducting materials and into external circuits for human use, have existed in one form or another for over 60 years. Little attention has been paid, however, to the promise of using light to drive another electricity-generating process — the transport of oppositely charged protons and hydroxides obtained by dissociating water molecules. Researchers in America report such a design, which has promising application in producing electricity to turn brackish water drinkable, on November 15 in the journal Joule.

The researchers, led by senior author Shane Ardo, an Assistant Professor of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering, and Materials Science at the University of California, Irvine, write that they have crafted an “ionic analog to the electronic pn-junction solar cell,” harnessing light to exploit the semiconductor-like behavior of water and generate ionic electricity. They hope to use such a mechanism to manufacture a device that would directly desalinate saltwater upon exposure to sunlight.

“There had been other experiments dating back to the 1980s that photoexcited materials so as to pass an ionic current through them, and theoretical studies said that those currents should be able to reach the same levels as their electronic analogs, but none of them worked all that well,” says first author William White, a graduate student in Ardo’s research group.

In this case, the researchers attained more success by allowing water to permeate through two ion-exchange membranes, one that mostly transported positively charged ions (cations) like protons and one that mostly transported negatively charged ions (anions) like hydroxides, functioning as a pair of chemical gates to attain charge separation. Shining a laser on the system prompted light-sensitive organic dye molecules bound to the membrane to liberate protons, which then transported to the more acidic side of the membrane and produced a measurable ionic current and voltages of oveIntelligent Line Monitoringr 100 mV in some instances (60 mV on average).

Summary of membrane designs for ionic electricity generation. Credit: Ardo et al.

Despite crossing the 100 mV photovoltage threshold at times, the level of electric current that the double-membrane system can achieve remains its chief limitation. The photovoltage would need to be magnified by more than another factor of two to reach the ~200 mV mark necessary to desalinate seawater, a target that the researchers are optimistic about hitting.

“It all comes down to the fundamental physics of how long the charge-carriers persist before recombining to form water,” Ardo says. “Knowing the properties of water, we are able to more intelligently design one of these bipolar-membrane interfaces so that we can maximize the voltage and the current.”

In the long run, desalination is just one possible application of the synthetic light-driven proton pump developed by the researche industrial IoT Gateway  rs. It could also have potential for interfacing with electronic devices, or even for powering signaling in brain-machine interfaces and other “cyborg cells” that combine living tissue and artificial circuity, a role that cannot be filled by traditional solar cells, which are unstable in biological systems.

“We have had a lot of ideas about what this technology could be used for; it’s just a question of learning enough to cross between fields and make the device work for those intended applications,” says Ardo. “I think this is just another example of what you can do when you have scientists who are trained across many disciplines and think outside the box.”

Publication: William White, et al., “Conversion of Visible Light into Ionic Power Using Photoacid-Dye-Sensitized Bipolar Ion-Exchange Membranes,” Joule, 2017; DOI:10.1016/j.joule.2017.10.015

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Yale engineers have demonstrated a micro fuel cell made of glass.

Made up of mostly bulk metallic glasses, a new type of micro Dual SIM M2M router   fuel cell could serve as a low-cost, long-lasting, and eco-friendly power source for portable electronic devices.

Engineers at Yale University have developed a new breed of micro fuel cell that could serve as a long-lasting, low-cost, and eco-friendly power source for portable electronic devices, such as tablet computers, smart phones, and remote sensors.industrial iot gateway The researchers describe the novel device in a paper published online in the journal Small.

An alternative to a battery, a fuel cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce energy, giving off only water and heat as byproducts. But the materials and methods commonly used for making micro fuel cells are fragile, inefficient, and expensive.

Major components of the new device are made of bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) — extremely pliable metal alloys that nonetheless are more durable than the metals typically used in micro fuel cells. BMGs can be finely shaped and molded using a comparatively efficient and inexpensive fabrication process akin to processes used in shaping plastics.

“These amorphous metal alloys are amazing materials that can be easily shaped into both large and small nanostructures, yet retain suitable properties for a wide range of electrochemical applications,” said André D. Taylor, an assistant professor of chemical and environmental engineering at Yale School of Engineering & Applied Science and a principal investigator of the research. Ryan C. Sekol, a doctoral student in Taylor’s lab, is lead author.

Silicon and stainless steel are the materials typically used in micro fuel cells. But silicon is brittle and a poor electricity conductor, and stainless steel is prone to corrosion. This means they require special coatings, which drives up production costs. Fabricating metal components on the nanoscale is complex and time-consuming also.

Using bulk metallic glasses solves these problems, the researchers said.

BMGs are metal alloys with randomly arranged atoms rather than the orderly, crystalline makeup of ordinary metals. The random atomic arrangement results in a tough but elastic substance — as strong as steel, yet malleable and good at conducting electricity, and thus superior to silicon and steel for micro fuel cells.

“Using thermoplastic processing, a process we invented at Yale, we can form metallic glasses like plastics, dramatically reducing fabrication costs,” said Jan Schroers, a professor of mechanical engineering and materials science at Yale and also a principal investigator of the project. He has pioneered the technique and used it to create complex shapes, including seamless metallic bottles, watchcases, miniature resonators, and biomedical implants. compact industrial router

The BMG components of the Yale team’s micro fuel cell (the entirety of which measures three cubic centimeters) are based on zirconium and platinum compounds. The team demonstrated that its fuel cell generates power and is now working to increase it.

The paper is titled “Bulk Metallic Glass Micro Fuel Cell.”

Other authors are Forrest Gittleson, Nathan Hardesty-Dyck, and Sundeep Mukherjee of Yale; Golden Kumar of Texas Tech University; and Marcelo Carmo of the Institute of Energy and Climate Research (Germany). Yale’s Center for Research on Interface Structures and Phenomena and the National Science Foundation provided support for the research.

Image: Yale News