Civil engineering and structural engineering are two engineering disciplines that are very similar to each other. However, they have vital differences that differentiate them from each other. In short, it can be said that all structural engineers are civil engineers, but not all civil engineers are structural engineers. In California, for example, civil engineers can do the work of structural engineers, except in the fields here where the law specifically prevents them from doing so. One of the provisions of the law is that only those who are registered as structural engineers can design the structural systems of hospitals and primary, secondary and secondary schools.

 The two terms, civil and structural engineering, are used to denote two engineering disciplines. Traditionally, structural engineering is classified as a subdiscipline of civil engineering. However, structural engineering has grown in such proportions that it is now considered an engineering discipline on its own. Both civil and structural engineering deals with analysis, design construction and maintenance of the elements. Civil engineering and structural engineering range from private to state projects and from small to large. While one is subdisciplinary to another, there are many differences between civil engineering and structural engineering in the scope of coverage, teaching and jobs.

 The basic difference between the two is that civil engineering is a four-year bachelor's degree offered at colleges and universities, while structural engineering is an advanced specialization after one becomes a civil engineer. After obtaining a degree in civil engineering, one can continue with postgraduate studies in structural engineering to specialize as a structural engineer.

While the two types of engineers ensure that construction projects are safe, stable and profitable, the work of civil engineers generally involves general supervision of a construction site or they can focus on model design or research. Some may also work in the area of ​​education, teaching the subject at universities.

 Civil engineering is one of the oldest engineering disciplines. It began when humans began to build shelters for themselves. In the traditional sense, civil engineering was defined as any engineering that is not related to military engineering. But at present, it is used to separate or distinguish civil engineering disciplines from other engineering disciplines, such as electrical engineering, electronic engineering, mechanical engineering, etc. Civil engineering generally contains structural engineering along with other subdisciplines, such as transportation engineering, environmental engineering, etc. Civil engineering deals with dams, roads, buildings, water treatment, canals, etc.

 Civil engineering is offered as a first degree in universities after a four-year full-time course or equivalent. It is very rare to find a master's or doctorate level course called a master's degree in civil engineering or a doctorate in civil engineering. After graduations, civil engineers join various disciplines in the field. Civil engineering graduates are expected to be familiar with all subdivisions of civil engineering. The civil engineering work could cover one or more sub-disciplines of civil engineering.

 Structural engineering deals with the design, analysis, construction and maintenance of load or resistance support structures. For example, dams, skyscrapers and bridges are covered in structural engineering. In structural engineering, the structures are divided into small elements according to the load mechanism they use, such as plates, housings, arches, columns, beams and catenaries. The structure of any size or shape is divided into these small elements and analyzed.

Structural engineering is taught as a subject in the civil engineering course of the universities. It is very rare to find structural engineering as a first grade for college students. However, structural engineering is offered as a master's or doctorate. When you join as a structural engineer, your work will cover the structural engineering part of the project.

 Although for some the terms civil engineering and structural engineering may seem similar, the truth is that they are very different from each other. Civil engineering is a collection of engineering subdisciplines, while structural engineering is one of those subdisciplines. For example, a structural engineer could work on the design of the structure to house a water treatment plant, however, the treatment systems are out of reach. On the other hand, the design, analysis, construction and maintenance of the water treatment system, and the entire combined building can be called civil engineering works.

At STEP Engineering we provide world-class structural design services focused on safety, constructability, and ease of installation.

Engineering drawings are the way engineers and draughtsmen communicate designs for a construction project to a contractor, builder or technician. In civil engineering, detailed plans are produced for each stage of a construction project, from bidding on the contract to completion. Writing is the best possible way to prepare a concise record of a construction project. The engineering drawing is usually the starting point in a long chain of events that ultimately results in the production, manufacture or construction of a construction project.

 This article will discuss:

 The types of drawings that accompany each stage of a construction project.

A brief discussion of the elements of civil engineering drawing: scale, projection and lines.

Classification of drawings of civil engineering.

There are four basic types of civil engineering drawings.

 Tender drawings

Contract drawings

Work drawings

Termination drawings

The function of each drawing corresponds to its stage in the construction project, from the bidding to its completion. The differences between each drawing can be negligent or significant according to the specific project. In small and simple projects, for example, there is often little difference between the tender drawing and the completion drawing. If drastic changes are made in the middle of the project, the work and completion plans can be markedly different from the bidding and contracting plans.

1. Tender drawings

A tender drawing is prepared at the beginning of the construction process and is used by contractors to develop offers. The bidding plans, together with the other bidding documents (list of quantities, specifications, etc.), describe the scheme of the project to the contractor so that he or she can assess the construction work accordingly. Tender drawings are prepared by engineers with clear understanding in mind.

 2. Drawings of the contract

The engineer can continue with a more detailed design only after completing the bidding plans and the bidding process. After evaluating the contractor's offer, the engineer compares the evaluation of the contractor's project with the drawings of the tender to make the necessary modifications according to the proposed construction methods and budget. These drawings and the engineer's report are included in the documents prepared for the legally binding contract between the contractor and the project commissioner.

 For some projects, if the tender has been simple and without any alternative proposal, the plans of the contract may be the same as those of the tender. If alternative proposals have been accepted, new or additional plans must be prepared in accordance with the accepted bid proposals and alternatives.

 The contract plans are printed on good quality paper and are given a cloth backing, and are designed to withstand long-term storage.

 3. Work drawings

The work plans are generally more detailed than the bidding and contract plans. These plans report the actual work and manufacture of a building or other project, and represent the engineer's final decisions regarding various details.

 For simple projects, the work plans can not differ significantly from the bidding or contract plans. However, for very large projects or projects with minimalist bidding drawings, the working drawings should be much more detailed than the previous drawings. They are often complemented by finer details of design and construction in the form of notes and additional written instructions.

4. Termination drawings

The finishing drawings are the final set of drawings made in a building project, and its purpose is to register the project as it was built.

 During any given project, it is likely that ad hoc changes have been made that diverge from the work planes. These variations, additions and alterations may be due to unforeseen site conditions or budgetary problems. Even the smallest variations are recorded in completion drawings, also known as registration or construction drawings.

 How to read engineering drawings

The engineering drawing uses a standard range of conventions and symbols that may seem incomprehensible at first glance. Engineering drawings are prepared in accordance with professional codes and technical standards so that they can be read by anyone without misinterpretation or confusion. The reading of engineering drawings requires knowledge of the following elements:

 Scales

Symbols

Projections

Lines

How to interpret scales in engineering drawings

The scales adopted for the plans of civil engineering depend on the degree of precision and detail required.

To survive and thrive while planning to meet expected future growth forecasts, airport operators must offer infrastructure updates and expansion programs while managing a multitude of stakeholders and expectations. Specifically, the local community must be taken into account. Airports should consider what it will be like to work, live and travel in the surrounding area, and how it can boost and support technology-based economic development within a region of the smart city. They must interconnect with the region around them and become a catalyst for economic development related to aviation, high-value employment and regional competitiveness. There is a real opportunity for airports to stop being simply a functional and transactional transport hub to become an attractive and high-quality experience for passengers and citizens alike.

 The more the passenger experience within an airport can be done smoothly and pleasantly, the customer satisfaction will increase. Digitization can help airports defend the customer to reduce or even eliminate the most pressing points of pain and frustrations for passengers. For example, the use of facial recognition technology and biometrics can speed up the registration process and link up with luggage to reduce stress in the delivery and collection routine. Some airports are already disconnecting passengers from their luggage through RFID electronic tagging and linking this with the billing process. In Hong Kong, passengers have the option of leaving their suitcases at a metro station in the city center and traveling to the airport with carry-on luggage without problems.

Traveling to and around an airport can often turn the beginning of a passenger's journey into a headache. Airports have the opportunity over the next 20 years to fundamentally transform this point of pain for passengers, and they will need it, because passengers will look for airports with the fastest, easiest and cheapest transport routes. Automated vehicle technology is already being adopted to help move passengers to and from car parks and terminal buildings, and this trend is likely to continue as the underlying technology becomes a mass and more efficient market. Fundamentally, airports should act as a catalyst through the creation of integrated master transport plans with their associated cities. This can be done by integrating the airport infrastructure with as many modes of transport as is economically and financially feasible, especially because customers expect options.

The design of the terminal must take into account and integrate the needs of the client. There is a small but growing number of airports, led by the Changi Airport in Singapore, which are showing the way. They are creating better experiences for passengers by providing features such as quiet areas, sleeping areas and multigenerational entertainment areas, suitable for both young and old, which could reduce the stress of passengers. The objective is to create a sense of place, where it is pleasant to stay, as well as "experiences" for passengers that include art and culture, music, movies, restaurants, hotels and digital entertainment. When done correctly, this can create a virtuous circle, where the best experiences of passengers provide a greater opportunity to relax, which also causes a greater willingness to spend.

Today's social landscape has created a greater demand for eco-design than ever before. The anticipation of a severe climate change, a universal awakening in development to the detriments of fossil fuels and a greater value in reducing our economic and environmental footprint are increasing the interest in sustainable design techniques. As a result, innovation in this sector is growing rapidly.

Six approaches to green construction and design

Heating and cooling

Thermal and solar heating and cooling methods are beginning to attract attention as low-impact, low-threshold design techniques that can not only be incorporated into new structures, but can also be used to modernize existing ones. The need for innovation in this area is severe: The Guardian reports that energy demands for cooling and heating will increase dramatically in the next 100 years, and if conventional methods continue to be used at the speed they have now, they could cause irreversible. Damage to Earth's ecosystems and become an unsustainable economic disaster.

  According to Earthship Global, a company that builds spaces for ecological living, the need for conventional air conditioning and heating systems could be eliminated completely by building strategic structures to take advantage of sunlight and thermal mass objects, which are sufficiently dense to absorb and store. thermal energy, such as large bricks made of materials that include earth, concrete or stone. The thermal mass construction materials, when placed strategically, could absorb the sunlight of the day and then release that thermal energy during the night hours to regulate the temperature of the structure. Companies and research centers around the world are developing approaches that could effectively use solar and thermal energy and, therefore, drastically reduce or eliminate the need for heating and cooling with fossil fuels.

Materials

The use of natural and recycled materials offers multiple benefits by reducing waste, reducing material costs of a project and mitigating the environmental costs necessary to produce new materials. Innovative designers are using everything from reclaimed wood and construction materials to disposable recyclable items such as glass and plastics in structures of all kinds. According to Earthship Global, 2,500 million car tires were discarded and are currently available for reuse in the United States alone. Earthship uses tires to build three out of every four walls of each of its living spaces. The possibilities of material recovery are as endless as creativity will allow and will provide an excellent strategy for sustainability.

 Water treatment and waste management

Some methods of treatment of contained wastewater require more sophisticated design measures due to the complex chemical and biological processes necessary to treat contaminated water. However, processes that use natural forms of water treatment can often be simpler and more sustainable than using intricate chemical combinations. The use of plants and aquatic life forms to naturally filter, filter and purify water provides effective ways to return contaminated water to a usable state. The designers have used algae, natural filtration materials that include soil and sand, ponds and outdoor storage containers that facilitate the growth of aquatic plants and fish to treat wastewater or gray water in a sustainable way, providing water treatment systems. treatment of contained water for homes. These self-contained water filtration methods can become increasingly common not only for private spaces, but also for larger structures.

Food

The conventional food production in the world today can be incredibly inefficient. GlobalResearch, a Canadian research firm, estimates that industrial agriculture accounts for 75 percent of the world's agricultural land, but contributes only 30 percent of the total amount of food consumed by the world's human population. Large percentages of agricultural products are used to sustain meat production, a totally inefficient industry due to the resources it requires. The transport costs for the shipment of food to the whole world, the waste caused by the industrialization of heavy foods and the significant distances between the production and the consumption cause that the experts forecast a massive lack of food in case of that the system does not receive a significant revision.

 Promoting local food production, decreasing meat consumption and eating seasonal items instead of sending them long distances to be available year-round can help the world recover its food resources and prevent large-scale disasters in the coming years .

Design

Consider a class of civil engineering structures such as the Pratt lattice bridge. Although the concept behind each design is similar, the actual configuration of the bridge and the loads that are applied vary in each case. With Application Builder, you can design a simulation tool that allows users to easily modify the parameters to take into account these differences in geometry and loads. Learn more with our Truss Bridge Designer computational application.

 The Pratt Truss Bridge, a classic and efficient civil engineering design

The Pratt lattice bridge has been a popular structural design among civil engineers for many years. This type of structure can be easily identified by the diagonal beams on each side that, apart from those at the end, lean towards the center of the bridge section. Due to their design, the diagonal beams are only subject to tension, and can be manufactured with a lighter and less expensive material. The shorter vertical beams, which are not as sensitive to buckling, are subjected to compression.

As with any kind of civil engineering structures, exposure to various forces, from vehicles to wind, can greatly affect the safety and stability of Pruss Truss bridges. To take into account these factors, it is necessary to understand the different loads placed in the structure, as well as the dimensions of the bridge in particular. Computational applications offer the capabilities to evaluate these two elements, while at the same time distributing the power of simulation to a greater number of people through a user-friendly interface. Let's see an example ...

 Design of an application to analyze various configurations of bridges and loads

The Truss Bridge Designer is an application based on our tutorial model of a Pratt Truss bridge. The integrated model and the underlying theory are hidden behind a simplified interface that users can easily navigate and use. As the application designer, it is up to you to decide how to organize the design and layout of your application, as well as to select the parameters you want to include.

The demo application, shown above, includes two main sections: the Inputs section and the Results section. Within the Inputs section, users can modify the dimensions of the bridge, the data of the cross section of the support beams and the coefficient of thickness and drag of the road. The Wind Load subsection can be used to specify if a wind load is applied and to set the direction and intensity of the wind. Meanwhile, the Truck Loading subsection gives users the option to specify the location and mass of the trucks applied in the stationary analysis. When adding the number of trucks, the following criteria must be met:

 A truck can be placed so that only one axle is inside the bridge, but it can not be completely outside the bridge

A truck can not have wheels that are outside the bridge in the direction and

Trucks should not overlap each other when several of them are added

If the positions of the truck do not meet the above criteria, a warning message will appear and the Stationary Calculator button will be deactivated. Notifications like this help provide guidance to users while running their own simulation tests, ensuring consistency in the results.

Engineering has always been very innovative. Today, sustainable development, climate change, renewable energies, technical innovations and the management of complex projects are new trends that must be addressed.

Why is this sector prone to innovation?

In construction and engineering, companies conduct surveys and manage projects, equipment and new products. The main function of engineering is to find solutions to make the projects possible. These solutions are technical and financial; They refer to the method, organization and management. Standard solutions can not always be used in any project. Some solutions must be found for a specific purpose and a specific project; This means innovation.

The innovation responds to many objectives such as:

Profit in productivity to improve the competitiveness of margins and services.

Ensure the collaboration of teams around innovative projects.

Improve the brand image to position itself as an innovative company.