#eastern han

Fuxi and Nüwa couple from Wu 武 family funerary shrine (Wu Liang Ci 武梁祠), in present-day Jiaxiang 嘉祥, Eastern Han (151 AD). The archetypal symbolism of winged serpents, characteristic of Asian mythology, is still present in the oldest examples like this one.

My favorite Chinese meme.)

By SY - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=65395681

While he claimed the title of emperor over Luoyang, Liu Xiu, or Emperor Guangwu of Han as he was known posthumously, wasn't in control over the entire empire initially, or even after the Gengshi Emperor's death. He had to reunify China and eliminate pretenders to the throne. He started with the Chimei, the Red Eyebrows who had their pretender to the throne, Liu Penzi. They were more incompetent than the Gengshi Emperor and the people of the Guangzhong, the area they'd managed to take over and modern day central Shaanxi, and they plundered the area when they ran out of supplies. They they withdrew to the east, toward modern day Shandong. Guangwu anticipated this and had his troops hassle the Chimei and set up an ambush at Yiyang in Luoyang. The Chimei were exhausted and they surrendered, which caused Guangwu to spare them, even Liu Penzi.

The Chimei represented the largest group that Emperor Guangwu had to deal with, but there were many regional groups that he had to deal with. There were other pretenders to the throne, such as Liu Yong, and commanders and governors who payed lip service to the emperor but acted independently, such as Wei Xiao who was commander over Xizhou and Dou Rong who was governor of Liang Province. One of the more powerful that challenged Guangwu was Gongsu Shu, who declared he was emperor of Chengjia, controlling the Yi and Yunnan provinces. He watched Guangwu work to unify the empire again without helping, first through diplomacy before through warfare, often trying repeatedly to convince those who were recalcitrant to join him rather than annihilating them. As more areas joined with Guangwu, Wei became more determined to remain independent and convinced Dou to join with him, though Dou did refuse. As Emperor Guangwu began to accept that the Wei and Gongsun would submit, Emperor Guangwu began a campaign against them in the summer of 30 CE. Wei submitted to Gongsun after his regime collapsed and died in 33 CE. His son surrendered in the winter of 34 CE, after Luomen, the capital of Shuoning, fell. Gongsun tried to win by assassinating generals rather than meeting Emperor Guangwu's army directly. This worked for a while, though the Eastern Han army regrouped and surrounded Gongsun in his capital of Chengdu. The Eastern Han army feinted that they were 'collasping from fatigue' in the Winter of 36 CE, which caused Gongsun and his army to leave the city to attack. Gongsun was mortally wounded in this encounter. After this, Emperor Guangwu was in control of the empire again, though 300 cities had been massacred to do so.

Beginning in 37 CE, Emperor Guangwu readjusted the various marches among other organizational changes to maintain the relationships between the empire and the various generals and the nobles. Generals were given large territories but no title beyond 'general', as well as giving them 'great wealth and often listened to their advice, but rarely put them in positions of authority', which help reduced the friction and keeping their relationships in a good place. He did largely avoid conflict that he did not have to go into. Two such unavoidable conflicts were those that involved the Trưng sisters, Vietnamese sisters known as Zheng Ce and Zheng Er in Chinese who rebelled and Zheng Ce claimed to be queen in 40 CE and were defeated in 43 CE, and when the Xiongnu harried the northern borders. Mostly, his reign was quiet as far as wars went.

In his private life, he 'married his childhood sweetheart Yin Lihua' and then 'entered into a political marriage with Guo Shengtong' who was related to a regional warlord. Guo quickly gave birth to a son, Liu Jiang in 25 CE. When it came time to declare his empress, he wanted to honor Yin, but since she'd not yet had a son, she demurred and insisted that he name Guo instead, which he did and then named her son crown prince. By 41, though, Guo no longer had the emperor's favor. She was deposed, though rather than being imprisoned, as was the usual fate of deposed empresses, but rather made her son Prince of Zhongshan and made her Princes Dowager of Zhongshan with her brother becoming an important official and given great wealth, likely as a way to give her an alimony. He made Yin his empress and her son, Liu Yang, the crown prince, changing his name to Zhuang.

In 47 CE, the Xiongnu were dealing with another succession dispute, with Punu and Bi as the two main actors, with Punu being the current leader and Bi being the son of the previous ruler. Bi claimed the title and said he'd submit to Emperor Guangwu in 48 CE. Punu then submitted, which stopped the war against the Han.

The Han Restoration and Beginning of the Eastern Han Dynasty

By User:Captmondo - Own work (photo), CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4556148

The reason for the Yellow River changing its course lies mostly with the amount of silt it carries, which is also the source of the yellowish color giving it its name. While dikes had been built to try and control the flooding, they failed during Wang Mang's rule. The flooding in 11 BCE resulted in the Yellow River having two branches, with a northern one that emptied slightly north of the Shandong Peninsula while the southern branch emptied south of it. The southern branch displaced thousands of peasants and helped to lead to the downfall of Wang Mang.

When Liu Xuan took the throne as the Gengshi Emperor, the posthumous title of Emperor Guangwu gave him thought he is also known as the King or Prince of Huaiyang which was another title granted to him by his brother, he initially was widely accepted and his edicts, such as the Xin officials who submitted to him would be allowed to keep their offices, were obeyed, at least nominally, but soon, people began seeing his advisors and those around him as being uneducated and unable to govern, weakening their trust and confidence in the government. Pretenders to the throne also rose, with one being a fortune teller named Wang Lang who claimed he was the son of Emperor Cheng and a singer and Empress Zhao Feiyan tried to kill him but killed a substitute baby instead. Those north of the Yellow River believed him and several commanderies pledge allegiance to him. This pushed Liu Xiu, the future Emperor Guangwu and the Gengshi Emperor's brother, out of Jicheng, modern day Beijing, though he was eventually able to unify those commanderies in the north that were still loyal to the Gengshi Emperor, resulting in the Gengshi Emperor putting him in charge of the northern territories. After a siege, he was able to kill Wang Lang in 24 CE.

The Gengshi Emperor moved his capital to Chang'an from Louyang and had to deal with the resentment of those who'd risen up against Want Mang and were now being treated as traitors. The Gengshi Emperor granted them a general pardon, which helped for a time. He was, however, timid and ineffective, which caused problems, as did his ignorance of official protocol. He also asked questions of generals such as 'How much did you pillage today?', which eroded confidence in his leadership even more. He left most of the governing to Zhao Meng, the father of his imperial consort, and Zhao abused his power while the emperor was quite often intoxicated. To his credit, when Zhao's crimes were revealed, the emperor had him executed, though there were other officials remaining who abused their power, which frustrated and angered the general population.

In the winter of 24 CE, the Chimei, the Red Eyebrows, wanted to return to their homes, but their leaders thought it'd be too difficult to call them up again, should it be needed, so they were given the objective of capturing Chang'an. Liu Xiu decided not to engage, despite having a relatively strong force under him. He remained in Henei, north of the Yellow River, as it was a strategically advantageous location. There, he would, in the summer of 25 CE, break ties with the emperor and fought the emperor's forces over control of Henei and Louyang. He declared himself emperor and founded what would be known as the Eastern Han Dynasty and began advancing on the Shanxi, reducing the number of troops that the Gengshi Emperor could call upon. To protect the Gengshi Emperor, his troops conspired to kidnap him to Nanyang, in modern day Henan, but their plan was discovered and many of them were executed. Zhang Ang, a general who was part of this conspiracy managed to occupy much of Chang'an, which pushed the Gengshi Emperor to flee as the Chimei were reaching Chang'an.

While this was happening, the Chimei chose a descendant of Liu Zhang, who had been known as the Prince of Chengyang and had been popular enough to be worshiped as a god after he died. They settled on Liu Penzi, who was 15 at the time, to be their puppet emperor as he was not actually given any power. The Gengshi Emperor's troops were eventually able to push Zhang Ang out of Chang'an, but he surrendered to and joined the Chimei, helping them attack Chang'an. The Gengshi Emperor was eventually forced to flee with those few who were still loyal to him. Eventually, one of his generals, Yan Ben, turned on him, capturing him, hoping to use him and those with him as bargaining chips. Liu Xiu heard about this and declared that the Gengshi Emperor was the Prince of Huaiyang and that he wasn't to be harmed but should be delivered to him. When Chang'an fell, Luoyang surrendered to Liu Xiu and allowed him to enter to make it his capital.

After being held captive by Yan Ben for a few months, the Gengshi Emperor negotiated surrender terms in the winter of 25 CE. He was promised that he'd be the Prince of Changsha. The Chimei, however, wanted him to be executed. Though he was allowed to return to Chang'an to give the imperial seal to Liu Penzi under the guard of Xie Lu, Emperor Penzi's general, they didn't kill the Gengshi Emperor, moved by Liu Gong's, the Gengshi Emperor's general, threat of suicide at the site of the execution. The Gengshi Emperor was forced to remain under Liu Gong's protection inside Xie Lu's headquarters.

我欲站在群峰之巅 I 东汉直渥复原

[HHS012]

Lu Fang, courtesy name Junqi, was a native of Sanshui in Anding, he lived within the Left Valley. In the time of Wang Mang, Under Heaven everyone thought of Han's virtue, and Fang made use of that to himself falsely claim to be Emperor Wu's great-grandson Liu Wenbo. His great-grandmother was the elder sister of the Xiongnu's Luli Hunxie King who had become the empress of Emperor Wu and born three children. When the chaos of Jiang Chong happened and the Heir-Apparent was executed, the Empress was implicated and died. Her middle son Ciqing absconded to Changling, the younger son Huiqing escaped to the Left Valley. General Huo installed Ciqing and welcomed Huiqing, but Huiqing did not set out and following that lived in the Left Valley. He begot a son, Sunqing, and Sunqing begot Wenbo. He often used this speech to confuse and deceive in the Anding area. At the end of Wang Mang, he therefore raised troops together with the Qiang and Hu from Sanshui's dependant states.

[HHS017]

Jia Fu, courtesy name Junwen, was a native of Guanjun in Nanyang. As young he was fond of studying, and was familiar with the Hallowed Documents. He served Li Sheng of Wuyin. Li Sheng was amazed with him, and spoke to people of his school, saying:

Jia Jun's looks and countenance and his aura of aspirations are this, and with his diligence in studying, he is the vessel of a general or chancellor.

At the end of Wang Mang, he joined the county staff. While receiving salt in Hedong, he happened to come across bandits and thieves. His colleagues, more than ten people, all let go of and scattered their salt, Fu alone carried through with returning to the county. Within the county they extolled his trustworthiness.

[HHS019]

Geng Yan, courtesy name Zhaofu, was a native of Maoling in Fufeng. His ancestor in the time of Emperor Wu as Two Thousand Shi official moved from Julu to there. His father Kuang, courtesy name Xiayou, due to his clarity became a Gentleman. He and Wang Mang's junior cousin Ji studied the Old Master together under the Former Master of Anqiu. Later he became the Joint Leader of Shuodiao.

Ji Kang's Biographies of Sagely Worthies and Exalted Gentlemen says: The sage of Anqiu's courtesy name was Zhongdu, and he was a native of Changling in Jingzhao. As young he held on to the norms of the Old Master. He was tranquil and unblemished and did not seek to advance in officialdom. He was titled as the Elder of Anqiu. Emperor Cheng heard of him and wished to see him. The sage refused it and was not willing to see him, and he became a wizard and physician among the people.

Wang Mang changed Shanggu commandery to Shuodiao, and Warden to Joint Leader.

Yan as young was fond of studying and practised his father's legacy. He often saw the commandery commandant test cavalrymen, erecting banners and drums, and practising galloping and shooting. Because of that he became fond of the affairs of generals and commanders.

The Book of Yuan Shansong says: Yan as young studied the Poetry and the Rites. He was clear, sharp, and had opportune plans.

The Ceremonies of Han Officials says: The end of the year is the time for the commandery tests. They explain military matters and direct the troops. Following that they use barricade hunts to examine their talents and strengths.

[HHS015]

Deng Chen, courtesy name Weiqing, was native of Xinye in Nanyang. His family had for generations been Two Thousand Shi officials.

The Eastern Watchtower Records says: Chen's great-grandfather Long was Inspector of Yang province. His grandfather Xun was Inspector of Jiaozhi.

His father Hong was Chief Commandant of Yuzhang. Chen at first married Guangwu's sister Yuan. At the end of Wang Mang, Guangwu once went to Wan together with his older brother Bosheng and Chen. They chatted and talked with Cai Shaogong, a native of Rang, and others. Shaogong was quite studied in charts and prophecies, and told them Liu Xiu would be Son of Heaven. Someone said:

Is it the Teacher of State, His Excellency Liu Xiu?

Guangwu jokingly said:

How do [you] know it is not this abject person?

Everyone seated there great laughed, Chen in his heart alone was delighted.

The Eastern Watchtower Records says: Chen and the Sovereign set out in the carriage together. They came upon an envoy but did not go down from the chariot. The envoy was angry, and quite a bit added to their humiliation and abuse. The Sovereign claimed to be a clerk from Jiangxia, Chen altered his name to Hou Jiacheng. The envoy considered them liars, brought them to the precinct, and wished to punish them. The steward of Xinye, Pan Shu, made a request, and they were released.

…

Lai Xi, courtesy name Junshu, was a native of Xinye in Nanyang. Six generations earlier, his ancestor Han had great merit. In the era of Emperor Wu, he Brilliantly Blessed Grandee he assisted the General of Towering ships, Yang Pu, and struck and routed Nanyue and Chaoxian. His father Chong in the time of Emperor Ai became Remonstrating Grandee. He married Guangwu's grand-aunt, and they begot Xi. Guangwu was very close and respectful to him. They several times went to Chang'an together.

[HHS016]

Deng Yu, courtesy name Zhonghua, was a native of Xinye in Nanyang. Aged thirteen, he was able to recite poetry and received teachings in Chang'an. At the time Guangwu had also travelled to study at the imperial capital. Though Yu by age was a child, when he saw Guangwu, he knew he was not an ordinary person, and thereupon they became closely attached to each other. After several years he returned home to his family.

[HHS010]

Guangwu's August Empress Guo, taboo Shengtong, was a native of Gao in Zhending. They were a distinguished family in the commandery. Her father Chang relinquished fields, residences and riches yielding several millions and given to his brother of a different mother. The people of the state found him him right-principled, and he served as Board of Merit for the commandery. He took as wife the daughter of King Gong of Zhending, who was titled Mistress Guo. She have birth to the Empress and a son, Kuang. Chang passed early. Mistress Guo, though a daughter of a royal family, was yet fond of decorum, moderation and frugality. She had the potency of maternal right-mindedness.

[HHS011]

Liu Penzi was a native of Shi in Taishan, he was a descendant of King Jing of Chengyang, Zhang. His grandfather's father Xian in the time of Emperor Yuan was ennobled as Marquis of Shi, and his father Meng inherited. When Wang Mang usurped the throne, the state was abolished, and following that they were natives of Shi.

[HHS012]

Liu Yong was a native of Suiyang in Liang commandery, and an eight generation descendant of King Xiao of Liang. The state was transmitted until his father Li. Middle of Yuanshi [3rd Year, 3 AD], Li was communicating with Emperor Ping's maternal family, the Wei clan, and was executed by Wang Mang.

[HHS022]