#chauci

“We have seen that long before the dawn of history Europe was covered with vast primaeval woods, which must have exercised a profound influence on the thought as well as on the life of our rude ancestors who dwelt dispersed under the gloomy shadow or in the open glades and clearings of the forest" (p. 350).

“When Hatfield Moss [a peat-bog] in Yorkshire was drained, there were found in it trunks of oak a hundred feet long and as black as ebony. One giant actually measured a hundred and twenty feet in length, with a diameter of twelve feet at the root and six feet at the top. No such tree now exists in Europe" (p. 351).

Peat-bog above Fossdale Gill in Yorkshire (pictured in 2015).

(Source: Peat bog above Fossdale Gill by Ian Taylor, CC BY-SA 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0, via Wikimedia Commons)

“The evidence of classical writers proves that great oak forests still existed down to their time in various parts of Europe. Thus the Veneti on the Atlantic coast of Brittany made their flat-bottomed boats out of oak timber, of which, we are told, there was abundance in their country. Pliny informs us that, while the whole of Germany was covered with cool and shady woods, the loftiest trees were to be seen not far from the country of the Chauci, who inhabited the coast of the North Sea. Among these giants of the forest he speaks especially of the oaks which grew on the banks of two lakes. When the waves had undermined their roots, the oaks are said to have torn away great portions of the bank and floated like islands on the lakes" (p. 353).

The North Sea. (Source: photo © by Tomasz Sienicki [user: tsca, mail: tomasz.sienicki at gmail.com], CC BY 2.5 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5, via Wikimedia Commons)

“...[Pliny] speaks of the vast Hercynian wood of Germany as an oak forest, old as the world, untouched for ages, and passing wonderful in its immortality. So huge were the trees, he says, that when their roots met they were forced up above ground in the shape of arches, through which a troop of horse could ride as through an open gate" (p. 354).

Map depicting the Hercynian Forest, by Christopher Weigel (1718).

(Source: Christopher Weigel, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons)

"...with the Druids the growth of mistletoe on an oak was a sign that the tree was especially sacred; and the rarity of this feature—for mistletoe does not commonly grow on oaks—would enhance the sanctity and mystery of the tree. For it is the strange, the wonderful, the rare, not the familiar and commonplace, which excites the religious emotions of mankind.... Thus among the Celts of Gaul the Druids esteemed nothing more sacred than the mistletoe and the oak on which it grew; they chose groves of oaks for the scene of their solemn service, and they performed none of their rites without oak leaves. ‘The Celts,’ says a Greek writer, ‘worship Zeus, and the Celtic image of Zeus is a tall oak’"" (p. 358; p. 362).

Druid Cutting Mistletoe on the 6th Day of the Moon (c. 1900), by Henri-Paul Motte

(Source: Henri-Paul Motte (1846-1922), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons)

"Perhaps the oldest and certainly one of the most famous sanctuaries in Greece was that of Dodona, where Zeus was revered in the oracular oak. The thunder-storms which are said to rage at Dodona more frequently than anywhere else in Europe, would render the spot a fitting home for the god whose voice was heard alike in the rustling of the oak leaves and in the crash of thunder” (p. 358).

Zeus of Dodona wearing oak wreath (obverse of silver distaster from c. 295-272 BCE, reign of Epeiros, King Pyrrhos; London, British Museum).

(Source: ArchaiOptix, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons)

“On the rivulet Micksy, between the governments of Pskov and Livonia in Russia, there stood a stunted, withered, but holy oak, which received the homage of the neighbouring peasantry down at least to 1874. An eyewitness has described the ceremonies. He found a great crowd of people, chiefly Esthonians of the Greek Church, assembled with their families about the tree, all dressed in gala costume. Some of them had brought wax candles and were fastening them about the trunk and in the branches. Soon a priest arrived, and, having donned his sacred robes, proceeded to sing a canticle, such as is usually sung in the Orthodox Church in honour of saints. But instead of saying as usual, ‘Holy saint, pray the Lord for us,’ he said, ‘Holy Oak Hallelujah, pray for us.’ Then he incensed the tree all round. During the service the tapers on the oak were lighted, and the people, throwing themselves on the ground, adored the holy tree. When the pastor had retired, his flock remained till late at night, feasting, drinking, dancing, and lighting fresh tapers on the oak, till everybody was drunk and the proceedings ended in an orgy[!]” (pp. 371-372).

—J. G. Frazer, The Magic Art & the Evolution of Kings, part 2 (The Golden Bough, vol. II, 1911, pp. 350-372)

Old oak tree near Ungurmuiža Manor in modern-day Latvia.

Ezinge Flute

This is a flute carved from a sheep bone which was found in the terp of Ezinge in Groningen, the Netherlands. The Ezinge terp has been inhabited since around 600BC and is a treasure trove for archeologists, as almost all terps are. In total the remains of around 85 farms has been found which date back between 600BC-500AD.

The flute itself dates back between 0-300AD and was most likely used by a Frisii or a Chauci tribe member. I love this image because it shows that the ancient Germanic people enjoyed making music as well. Unfortunately we will never know what kind of tunes they played as there is no written records of their music but it feels good knowing that 2000 years ago, someone was using this flute and creating his/her own tunes.

People still live on the Ezinge terp until this day and the small village has a museum I recommend visiting, once the lockdown ends.

Chauci

The Chauci were a Germanic tribe situated in modern day north-western Germany and parts of north-eastern Netherlands. They were neighboured by the Frisii to the west, the Ampsivarii and Cherusci to the south, and the Lombardi to the east. From a cultural perspective, they were incredibly similar to the Frisii, the reason why is because the landscape was exactly the same, flat swampy coastal land without trees. Both tribes built their homes on terps, artificial hills, to protect them from the sea and both thrived on fishing and raiding.

The meaning of the name Chauci is still a puzzle but there is a theory that the word Chauci is derived from the Proto-Germanic root for the word 'spear', 'ger. Another theory suggests that the word Chauci is derived from the Proto-Germanic word 'Hauhae', high-comers.

The first written mention of this tribe comes from one of Rome's most succesful Roman generals, Drusus Germanicus, yes the same general who died after a fall from his horse. During 12BC, Germanicus was present north of the Rhine and subjugated the Frisii. The Chauci, being their neigbours, were next on Germanicus' list but the Gods were with the Chauci as low tides trapped Germanicus' ships so he was forced to retreat.

The next written mention comes from another Roman general called Germanicus. Between 14-16AD Germanicus invaded Germania in order to revenge the lost battle of Teutoburgerwald. Instead of entering Germania by crossing the Rhine, he sailed around the north sea coast and invaded Germania from Frisii territory. Something quite peculiar happened during Germanicus' campaign between him and the Chauci.

The Chauci did not parttake in Arminius'alliance and were thus not a target of the Roman empire. Yet they weren't popular amongst the Romans either because of their continuous raids on Roman vessels and settlements. I have told the story before on how Germanicus' fleet was hit by a storm and largely destroyed. Germanicus himself however escaped with his life because the Chauci saved him. It is unknown why the Chauci decided to help the Roman army hit by a storm, was it for altruistic purposes or did they just want a better reputation in Rome? The whole event has been described by Tacitus in his annals, here is a small piece:

"But soon the hail poured from a black mass of clouds, and simultaneously the waves, buffeted by conflicting gales from every quarter, began to blot out the view and impede the steering. The soldiers, struck by alarm and unfamiliar with the sea and its hazards, nullified by their obstruction or mistimed help the services of the professional sailors. Then all heaven, all ocean, passed into the power of the south wind which, drawing its strength from the sodden lands of Germania, the deep rivers, the endless train of clouds with its grimness enhanced by the rigour of the neighbouring north, caught and scattered the vessels to the open ocean or to islands either beetling with crags or perilous from sunken shoals.

These were avoided with time and difficulty but, when the tide began to change and set in the same direction as the wind, it was impossible either to hold anchor or to bale out the inrushing flood. Chargers, pack-horses, baggage, even arms, were jettisoned, in order to lighten the hulls, which were leaking through the sides and overtopped by the waves. Precisely as the ocean is more tempestuous than the remaining sea, and Germania unequalled in the asperity of its climate, so did that calamity transcend others in extent and novelty, around them lying hostile shores or a tract so vast and profound that it is believed the last and landless deep.

Some of the ships went down, more were stranded on remote islands where, in the absence of human life, the troops died of starvation, except for a few who supported themselves on the dead horses washed up on the same beach. Germanicus' galley put in to the Chaucian coast alone. Throughout all those days and nights, posted on some cliff or projection of the shore, he continued to exclaim that he was guilty of the great disaster and his friends with difficulty prevented him from finding a grave in the same waters.

Not a man returned from the distance without his tale of marvels, furious whirlwinds, unheard-of birds, enigmatic shapes half-human and half-bestial things seen, or things believed in a moment of terror." - Tacitus, Annals

In 47AD both the Chauci and Frisii joined the pirate Gannascus of the Cananefates tribe on his proto-viking raids. The Chauci were notorious for raiding but now with an experienced former Roman soldier at their command, their raids entered a new and destructive phase. The three tribes raided the coasts of Gaul, Britannia and Belgica forcing the Romans to strengthen their defenses and deploy triremes on the Rhine river. Eventually Gannascus was asassinated by the Romans which almost led to a Roman-Germanic war.

Only a few years later in 69AD the Batavi tribe revolted against the Romans together with the Frisii and Cananefates. The Chauci sent military troops to Batavi lands in order to support the revolt. Initially it was a very succesful revolt causing the destruction of two Roman legions and several forts but it was put down the following year by the Romans. Even though the Chauci were willing to save Roman lives from drowning, they continued on raiding and attacking Rome at the same time while also supplying Rome with auxilliary troops.

A few years later, somewhere around 70-80AD, a Roman officer, author and philosopher by the name of Pliny the Elder, visited the lands of the Frisii and Chauci and wrote a description on the landscape and way of life:

"Here a wretched race is found, inhabiting either the more elevated spots of land, or else eminences artificially constructed, and of a height to which they know by experience that the highest tides will never reach. Here they pitch their cabins and when the waves cover the surrounding country far and wide, like so many mariners on board ship are the: when, again, the tide recedes, their condition is that of so many shipwrecked men, and around their cottages they pursue the fishes as they make their escape with the receding tide.

It is not their lot, like the adjoining nations, to keep any flocks for sustenance by their milk, nor even to maintain a warfare with wild beasts, every shrub, even, being banished afar. With the sedge and the rushes of the marsh they make cords, and with these they weave the nets employed in the capture of the fish; they fashion the mud, too, with their hands, and drying it by the help of the winds more than of the sun, cook their food by its aid, and so warm their entrails, frozen as they are by the northern blasts; their only drink, too, is rainwater, which they collect in holes dug at the entrance of their abodes." - Pliny the Elder

Tacitus published his work 'Germania' in 98AD and in his work he also wrote a short description on the Chauci:

"The Chauci are the noblest of the Germanic races, a nation who would maintain their greatness by righteous dealing. Without ambition, without lawless violence, they live peaceful and secluded, never provoking a war or injuring others by rapine and robbery. Indeed, the crowning proof of their valor and their strength is, that they keep up their superiority without harm to others. Yet all have their weapons in readiness, and an army if necessary, with a multitude of men and horses; and even while at peace they have the same renown of valor." - Tacitus, Germania

As you might have noticed, Tacitus' words are not very accurate since the Chauci were known for their piracy so it is unclear why Tacitus described them in such a way.

During the late 2nd century AD, the Chauci intensified their raids once again by destroying and pillaging several settlements across north-western Europe. These raids were so intense that the Roman empire spent the next 30 years on building better defenses. Their trail of destruction is still visible to this day as archeologists have found traces of burned settlements along the north sea coast. The Chauci were true raiders at heart and raiding provided them with supplies and food.

Eventually the Saxon confederation came into existence somewhere during the 3rd century AD. The Chauci were either part of the initial tribes who formed the federation or were absorbed by them later. Over time the Chauci lost their individual identity and became known as the Saxons.

Germanic Sea Raiders

Yes this post is about sea raiders, no this post isn't about vikings. The Germanic coastal tribes are in fact the earliest recorded sea raiders around the North Sea. Several accounts written by Romans, describe how Germanic warriors were a plague along the coasts of North Western europe, especially the coasts of Britannia and Gaul. The main target of these sea raiders? coastal Roman settlements.

Here is a small account described by Tacitus, the following event took place in 83AD in modern day Scotland:

"The same summer a Usipian cohort, which had been levied in Germania and transported into Britain, ventured on a great and memorable exploit. Having killed a centurion and some soldiers, who, to impart military discipline, had been incorporated with their ranks and were employed at once to instruct and command them, they embarked on board three swift galleys with pilots pressed into their service.

Under the direction of one of them ,for two of the three they suspected and consequently put to death, they sailed past the coast in the strangest way before any rumour about them was in circulation. After a while, dispersing in search of water and provisions, they encountered many of the Britons, who sought to defend their property. Often victorious though now and then beaten, they were at last reduced to such an extremity of want as to be compelled to eat, at first, the feeblest of their number, and then victims selected by lot.

Having sailed round Britain and lost their vessels from not knowing how to manage them, they were looked upon as pirates and were intercepted, first by the Suebi and then by the Frisii. Some who were sold as slaves in the way of trade, and were brought through the process of barter as far as our side of the Rhine, gained notoriety by the disclosure of this extraordinary adventure." - Tacitus, Agricola

Here it seems that a group of disgruntled Germanic auxiliary troops hijacked three galleys and went on a small tour of plunder before stranding on the coasts of the Frisii, modern day the Netherlands. But this is not the only account of piracy conducted by the Germanic people. One Germanic tribe in particular was quite infamous for raiding coastal settlements.

The Chauci tribe, who just like the Frisii lived on small terps right along the coast, mastered the concept of piracy. They were the neighbours of the Frisii, located to the east of them in modern day North-Western Germany. Just like the Frisii, it was for the Chauci absolutely essential that they knew how to sail/row, their landscape was one of water with virtually no trees or suitable ground for crops. Also unlike the Frisii, Batavi and Cananefates, their location was quite isolated, beyond the reach of the Romans.

The Chauci truly terrorised the coasts of Western Europe. Archeological research leads to the theory that raiding was pretty much essential for the development of the Chauci tribe and that they actually organized these raids quite carefully. The first wave of Chauci sea raids occured during the first century AD. Especially between 41-47AD, the Chauci plagued the coasts of Gallia Belgica, leading to much Roman frustration.

The second Chauci wave of raids is even more interesting. This time the Chauci raiders were led by a Cananefates man called Ganascus, the Cananefates were a Germanic tribe located in modern day Zuid-Holland, the Netherlands. Ganascus served as an auxiliary soldier in the Roman army but he deserted. This is the reason why the second wave was so succesful for the Chauci. Ganascus, as ex-Roman soldier, held a lot of knowledge about the structure of the Roman army, their defences, interesting targets and their strength.

The Chauci, under Ganascus, even managed to set a Roman fort on fire, Praetorium Agrippinae, which was located in modern day Valkenburg, the Netherlands. Their luck didn't last and eventually Ganascus was captured and executed.

Besides the Chauci, Usipeti and Cananefates, there was another tribe who took their ships to the sea and rivers to terrorize Roman forts/settlements along the borders of Germania, the Batavi. In 69AD the Batavi people revolted against the Romans, together with the support of neighbouring tribes like the Cananefates and the Frisii, the Batavi raided forts along the river Rhine and managed to capture an entire Roman fleet. The Batavi were even daring enough to engage in an open sea battle with the Romans near the mouth of the river Rhine.

After the Batavi revolt, a short time of relative peace returned to the rivers and coasts of Western Europe but the Chauci raids started to intensify again in 170AD. This time the Chauci raids were larger and more violent than ever. The Roman governor of Gallia Belgica was even forced to recruit more auxiliary troops in order to deal with these raiding Chauci pirates. The Chauci continued to raid the coasts for a few decades, their trail of destruction is still visible for archeologists until this very day.

Two villas in Armorica, modern day Bretagne, were destroyed. Several hidden coin treasures were found as well in Bretagne which shows that the Romans feared these Chauci raiders and tried to hide their valuables underneath the ground. Also modern day England wasn't spared. Several Roman settlements in modern day Essex were destroyed by the Chauci. The Romans desperately tried to defend themselves against these agressive sea raiders by building even more forts and by intensifying their patrols on the sea.

A small geographical change in the coastline of the North sea, from modern day Denmark to Flanders around 230AD, caused the sealevel to rise between 0,9-2,4 meters. This was of course a disaster for the coastal people who by then were part of the Saxon and/or Frankish confederation. Also the Romans were concerned about the rising waters and they began to pull back from the Rhine until around the location of the modern day city of Nijmegen. Together with the political struggles inside the Roman empire, this left the borders severely weakened and the Frankish saw their chance.

Yes even the Franks were known to have conducted sea raids and some of these Frankish sea raids didn't even occur in Western Europe. Around the year 260AD and the year 278AD, the Franks undertook two major sea raids along the coasts of modern day Spain and Morocco. They raided and terrorized settlements for about a decade before they were defeated by the Romans.

Ironically enough, a few captured Frankish pirates were send to the black sea to defeat raiding Goths. You can of course expect this to happen but the Franks stole a Roman galley and turned to piracy again. This was an incredibly dumb idea by the Roman emperor who gave this order, emperor Probus. Now the Franks were raiding settlements along the coasts of Greece, Libia, Sicilia and even Tunesia, until the Romans finally managed to beat them.

The Franks also raided the coasts of modern day England like the Saxons did. Archeological research shows that the Romans suddenly intensified the construction of forts between 250-280AD in Britannia. Eutropius, a Roman historian, described how the Saxons raided along the waters of Gallia Belgica, Armorica and Britannia. These raids eventually resulted in the invasion of Britannia by the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians.

The last Germanic folk, who sometimes made themselves guilty of piracy, were the Frisians. The Frisians flourished after the fall of the Roman empire. They were incredible traders and they were responsible for the creation of a huge trade netwerk and the growth of several trade settlements, which grew into modern day cities like: Dorestad, Medemblik, Ipswich, Norwich, Schleswig, Quentovic, Southampton and London.

Just like the earlier Chauci and Frisii, the Frisians lived, and still live, on terps. They were and still are surrounded by water so their ships were absolutely essential for their survival. They weren't agressive raiders like the Chauci but decided to focus more on trade instead. This rich trade network turned Frisia into a powerful kingdom and trade continued to grow even after their forceful conversion to Christianity. Unfortunately this all changed when the most famous Germanic people started to raid, the so called vikings.

Gannascus

Gannascus was a Cananefaat, the Cananefaten were a Germanic tribe located in modern day Zuid-Holland, the Netherlands. For those who want to know more about this tribe, I have written a post about them a few months ago so you can search for it.

Back to Gannascus the Cananefaat. Gannascus served in the Roman army during the first century. He however deserted the army around 46AD and fled to the North, to Frisii territory. The Cananefaten lived in Germania Inferior, controlled by the Roman empire under Roman Governor Sanquinius Maximus.

Sanquinius died around the same time Gannascus deserted the army. His death weakened the militairy structure of Germania Inferior. Gannascus saw this weakness and decided to exploit this by becoming a pirate (or as some have claimed, the very first viking).

It took a period of time before Sanquinius' successor was announced, Corbulo. During this period of time, Gannascus gathered a group of Frisii and Chauci raiders and they provided the ships since both the Frisii and Chauci were excellent seafarers. Well I think you could hardly call it ships, Tacitus described how Gannascus used large canoes (the same type I wrote about earlier this week) to raid settlements on the coasts of Brittannia and Gallia.

Gannascus, as a Cananefaat, possessed a lot of knowledge about the coastal areas and information about Roman troops from his time in the Roman army. His raiders operated from Frisia and from there they terrorised the Roman controlled area of the North Sea.

Gannascus was a very succesfull raider until Corbulo became the new governor. Corbulo immediately sent Roman patrol ships to patrol the Frisii waters. Eventually Corbulo managed to destroy Gannascus' raiding fleet and Gannascus himself fled to Chauci territory.

Corbulo set up a trap for the raider by trying to negotiate with the Chauci. Gannascus was murdered by Roman envoys shortly later. This sparked great anger amongst the Frisii and Chauci and it threatened to escalate into an armed conflit. Rome did not want another war with the Germanic tribes and ordered Corbulo to stop all military actions in Germania. This came as a surprise to Corbulo since the Roman emperor, Claudius, who gave this order, was the brother of the famous Germanicus who led several succesfull expeditions into Germania.

Emperor Claudius rather wanted to focus on conquering Britannia instead of battling the Germanics. Claudius pretty much viewed the Northern Netherlands as a miserable piece of land not worth all the trouble. After Claudius' orders, all Roman camps, forts and strogholds above the Rhine, including the fort Flevum which I wrote about last week, were abandoned permanently and contact between the Romans and the Frisii decreased considerably. The Romans never made another expedition into Germania.

In short, Gannascus can be viewed as the very first viking, raiding settlements in modern day England and France. His raids were so succesfull that the Roman emperor eventually decided to withdrawl completely from the Northern Netherlands resulting in the Frisii tribe to become completely free again. Gannascus is also the first recorded Dutch pirate.

Pliny's description of the landscape in modern day Northern Netherlands and Germany.

"In the far North, a vast coastal area is flooded twice each day by the waves of the ocean, so that makes one wonder whether this region should be counted as land or as sea. Right there live a people on small hills that they have raised with their own hands to a certain height that they know from experience that the highest tides will never reach.

On these hills they built their homes, and if the waves flood the surrounding lands, they look like seafarers on board of their own ships. When the water has lowered again, they look more like shipwrecked people. They hunt for fish around their huts, who try to flee while the tide declines.

Unlike their neighbours, they can't keep cattle to collect milk. They can't even hunt for animals because there are no bushes or trees as far as the eye can see. With reeds they make ropes with which they create nets in order to catch fish.

They warm their limbs, numb by the cold Northern winds, and cook their meals by burning lumps of mud, shaped by hand,  that are dried more because of the wind than because of the sun. They get their water to drink from holes that are dug near the entrance of their homes.

- Pliny the Elder

Chauci

The Chauci were a Germanic tribe situated in modern day North West Germany and small parts of North East Netherlands. From a cultural perspective, they were very similar to the Frisians and Angles. The Chauci lived right in between those two tribes so that's the reason why they are so similar. The people who lived near the coast, built their homes on terpen, just like the Frisians did.

The Chauci had a treaty with the Roman empire, one of the conditions were that they had to provide the Romans with men for their army. They did not partake in the Teutoburg forest battle despite promising aid to Arminius.

They were however quite famous sea raiders. Some historians even see them as a form of proto-vikings. The Chauci raided the Romans, while also fighting alongside with them. They raided the coasts of modern day Belgium, clashed with the Frisians and drove away the Ampsivarii. Between the years 170-175AD they kept on raiding settlements along the North Sea including eastern Britain and even joined the Batavian revolt in 69AD.

Eventually around 300AD they merged with the Saxons and were known as the Saxons from then on. If history channel ever wants to make a new show about pagan sea raiders, then they should definitely make one about the Chauci.

Unfortunately there is no artwork ,as far as I know, depicting the Chauci on their raids so I chose a picture of raiding vikings instead. That is the downside of vikings being so immensely popular but not the Germanic tribes that preceeded them many centuries before.

The Chauci The Chauci (German: Chauken) were an ancient Germanic tribe living in the low-lying region between the Rivers Ems and Elbe, on both sides of the Weser and ranging as far inland as the upper Weser. Along the coast they lived on artificial hills called terpen, built high enough to remain dry during the highest tide. A dense population of Chauci lived further inland, and they are presumed to have lived in a manner similar to the lives of the other Germanic peoples of the region until eventually after some time becoming merged with the Saxons (the circumstances over this merger are widely debated among scholars). Writing in AD 79, Pliny the Elder said that the Germanic tribes were members of separate groups of people, suggesting a distinction among them. He said that the Chauci, Cimbri and Teutoni—the people from the River Ems through Jutland and for some distance inland—were members of a group called Ingaevones. Tacitus, writing in AD 98, described the inland, non-coastal Chauci homeland as immense, densely populated, and well-stocked with horses. He was effusive in his praise of their character as a people, saying that they were the noblest of the Germans, preferring justice to violence, being neither aggressive nor predatory, but militarily capable and always prepared for war if the need arose. The Chauci were one of the most prominent early Germanic sea raiders. Tacitus describes the Chauci as 'peaceful' in his Germania (AD 98), but this is in a passage describing the non-coastal, inland Chauci, whereas sea raiders are necessarily a coastal people.

source: Women of Asatru

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The Dance at Alder Cove

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☽✪☾Youth/Father/Geezer☽✪☾

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