#11thclass

Introduction:

Understanding the structure of the atom has been a central focus in atomic theory. While Bohr’s model introduced the concept of quantized orbits, it failed to explain the behavior of multi-electron atoms and the fine structure of spectral lines. This led to the development of a more advanced theory — the Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom, built upon the foundations laid by de Broglie, Heisenberg, and Schrödinger.

Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom:

Limitations of Bohr’s Model:

- Could not explain Zeeman and Stark effects. - Failed for atoms beyond hydrogen. - Treated electrons as particles only.

Dual Nature of Matter — de Broglie Hypothesis:

Proposed by Louis de Broglie. Matter exhibits both particle and wave nature. Equation: λ = h/mv

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

It is impossible to determine the exact position and momentum of an electron simultaneously. Δx·Δp ≥ h/4π

Need for a New Model:

Particle nature alone couldn’t describe electron behavior. Wave mechanics needed to describe subatomic particles accurately.

Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom:

Schrödinger’s Wave Equation:

Developed a mathematical model for electron wave behavior. Time-independent equation: Ĥψ = Eψ

Wave Function and Its Significance:

ψ² gives probability density of finding an electron.

Atomic Orbitals:

Region in space with high probability of finding electrons. Described using quantum numbers.

Quantum Numbers:

1. Principal Quantum Number (n): Energy level 2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l): Shape of orbital 3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m): Orientation 4. Spin Quantum Number (s): Spin direction of electron

Shapes of Orbitals:

s-orbital: Spherical p-orbital: Dumbbell d-orbital: Cloverleaf f-orbital: Complex shapes

Pauli Exclusion Principle:

No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of all four quantum numbers.

Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity:

Electrons occupy degenerate orbitals singly before pairing.

Aufbau Principle:

Electrons fill orbitals from lower to higher energy.

Conclusion:

Introduction:

Proteins are vital biological macromolecules essential for life. In Class 12 Chemistry (Chapter: Biomolecules), understanding proteins includes their structure, types, and functions. These notes help you grasp the key concepts easily for board exams and competitive preparation like NEET and JEE.

What Are Proteins?

Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. They play critical roles in almost all biological processes. Chemically, proteins are polymers of α-amino acids.

Amino Acids – Building Blocks of Proteins

Structure of α-Amino Acids: Each amino acid has a central α-carbon, an amino group (–NH₂), a carboxylic group (–COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a variable R group. General formula: NH₂–CH(R)–COOH Classification: - Essential Amino Acids (e.g., Valine, Leucine) - Non-Essential Amino Acids (e.g., Glycine, Alanine)

Formation of Peptides and Proteins

Peptide Bond: Formed when –COOH of one amino acid reacts with –NH₂ of another, releasing water. Types: - Dipeptide: 2 amino acids - Tripeptide: 3 amino acids - Polypeptide: Many amino acids - Protein: More than ~50 amino acids in a specific 3D structure

Structure of Proteins

1. Primary Structure: Linear sequence of amino acids. 2. Secondary Structure: α-Helix and β-Pleated Sheet (hydrogen bonds). 3. Tertiary Structure: 3D shape formed by R-group interactions. 4. Quaternary Structure: Multiple polypeptide chains (e.g., Hemoglobin).

Classification of Proteins

By Composition: - Simple Proteins: Only amino acids - Conjugated Proteins: With non-protein parts By Function: - Structural: Keratin, Collagen - Enzymatic: Pepsin, Amylase - Transport: Hemoglobin - Hormonal: Insulin

Denaturation of Proteins

Loss of structure and biological activity due to temperature, pH, or chemicals. Example: Cooking an egg – Albumin protein coagulates.

Functions of Proteins

- Structural: Build cells and tissues - Enzymatic: Catalyze reactions - Transport: Carry substances - Regulatory: Hormones - Protective: Antibodies

Protein Tests (Class 12 Practical Relevance)

Biuret Test: Purple color indicates proteins. Xanthoproteic Test: Yellow color shows aromatic amino acids.

Important Protein Examples for Board Exams

Hemoglobin – Oxygen transport Insulin – Blood sugar regulation Albumin – Osmotic pressure control Pepsin – Protein digestion

Conclusion

Introduction to Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic compounds found in nature and are vital for life. They serve as a primary source of energy for living organisms. Chemically, carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds that yield them on hydrolysis. The general formula is Cn(H2O)n.

Classification of Carbohydrates

1. Monosaccharides

• Simplest form of carbohydrates. • Cannot be hydrolyzed further. • General formula: CnH2nOn • Examples: Glucose, Fructose

2. Oligosaccharides

• Contain 2–10 monosaccharide units. • Most important oligosaccharide: Disaccharides • Examples: Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose), Lactose (Glucose + Galactose), Maltose (Glucose + Glucose)

3. Polysaccharides

• Long chains of monosaccharide units. • Not sweet, insoluble in water. • Examples: Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen

Structure and Function of Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are further classified based on: - Number of carbon atoms: Trioses, Tetroses, Pentoses, Hexoses - Functional group:   • Aldoses (with –CHO group)   • Ketoses (with –CO group) Glucose is an aldohexose with the formula C6H12O6. It exists in two cyclic forms: α-glucose and β-glucose.

Reducing and Non-Reducing Sugars

Reducing Sugars

• Can reduce Fehling’s or Tollen’s reagent. • Contain free aldehyde or ketone group. • Examples: Glucose, Maltose, Lactose

Non-Reducing Sugars

• Do not have a free –CHO or –CO group. • Example: Sucrose

Properties of Glucose

• Sweet, soluble in water • Undergoes oxidation and reduction • Does not react with Schiff’s reagent • Exists as α- and β- anomers in solution

Polysaccharides in Biological Systems

Starch

• Plant storage carbohydrate • Made of amylose and amylopectin

Glycogen

• Animal storage carbohydrate • Similar to amylopectin but more branched

Cellulose

• Structural polysaccharide in plants • Cannot be digested by humans

Tests for Carbohydrates

1. Molisch’s Test

• General test for carbohydrates (violet ring formation)

2. Benedict’s Test

• Detects reducing sugars (brick red precipitate)

3. Fehling’s Test

• Another test for reducing sugars (red ppt. of Cu2O)

Importance of Carbohydrates:

• Source of energy: 1 gram = 4 kcal • Storage: Glycogen in animals, starch in plants • Structural role: Cellulose in plant cell walls • Component of biomolecules: DNA, RNA (ribose, deoxyribose)

Conclusion

Introduction:

Integration by Parts is a crucial technique in integral calculus, especially useful when dealing with the integration of the product of two functions. It is derived from the product rule of differentiation and helps solve complex integrals that cannot be integrated directly. Understanding this method thoroughly will aid in solving various problems in CBSE Class 12 board exams and competitive exams like JEE Main.

Formula for Integration by Parts:

If u = f(x) and v = g(x), then:

∫ u·v dx = u ∫v dx - ∫ (du/dx · ∫v dx) dx

Or simply,

∫ u·v dx = uv - ∫ v·(du/dx) dx

Choosing u and v – ILATE Rule:

To select which function to differentiate and which to integrate, use the ILATE rule:

I: Inverse Trigonometric functions L: Logarithmic functions A: Algebraic functions T: Trigonometric functions E: Exponential functions

Solved Examples of Integration by Parts:

Evaluate ∫ x · e^x dx

Let u = x (Algebraic), dv = e^x dx Then, du = dx, and v = ∫ e^x dx = e^x Apply the formula: ∫ x·e^x dx = x·e^x - ∫ e^x dx = x·e^x - e^x + C Answer: ∫ x·e^x dx = e^x(x - 1) + C

Evaluate ∫ ln x dx

Let u = ln x, dv = dx Then, du = (1/x) dx, v = ∫ dx = x Apply the formula: ∫ ln x dx = x·ln x - ∫ x·(1/x) dx = x·ln x - ∫ 1 dx = x·ln x - x + C Answer: ∫ ln x dx = x(ln x - 1) + C

Evaluate ∫ x · sin x dx

Let u = x, dv = sin x dx Then, du = dx, v = ∫ sin x dx = -cos x Apply the formula: ∫ x·sin x dx = -x·cos x + ∫ cos x dx = -x·cos x + sin x + C Answer: ∫ x·sin x dx = -x·cos x + sin x + C

Special Cases and Tips:

Some integrals may require repeated application of the formula. For example: ∫ x^2 e^x dx

Practice Questions

1. ∫ x · cos x dx 2. ∫ x · ln x dx 3. ∫ x^2 · e^x dx 4. ∫ arctan x dx 5. ∫ ln x dx

Conclusion:

Introduction:

Diazonium salts form an important category of organic compounds that are widely used in organic synthesis, especially in the manufacture of azo dyes, pharmaceuticals, and aromatic derivatives. These compounds are prepared primarily from aromatic amines and are characterized by the presence of the functional group –N₂⁺X⁻. In Class 12 Chemistry, the topic is covered under the chapter “Amines”, and it often carries significant weightage in CBSE Board exams and entrance exams like NEET and JEE.

What are Diazonium Salts?

Diazonium salts are organic compounds that contain a diazonium group (–N₂⁺) attached to an aryl group. The general formula is ArN₂⁺X⁻, where: - Ar = Aromatic group (usually derived from benzene) - X⁻ = Anion like Cl⁻, Br⁻, NO₃⁻, HSO₄⁻, etc.

Example: Benzenediazonium chloride (C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻)

General Method of Preparation of Diazonium Salts

Diazonium salts are prepared by a chemical reaction known as diazotization, which involves the reaction of primary aromatic amines with nitrous acid (HNO₂) in an acidic medium under cold conditions (0–5°C).

General Reaction: ArNH₂ + HNO₂ + HX → ArN₂⁺X⁻ + 2H₂O

Example using Aniline: C₆H₅NH₂ + HNO₂ + HCl → C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻ + 2H₂O

Laboratory Preparation of Diazonium Salts:

In the lab, nitrous acid is prepared in situ: NaNO₂ + HCl → HNO₂ + NaCl

Step-by-Step Procedure: 1. Prepare a cold solution of aniline in dilute HCl. 2. Cool to 0–5°C. 3. Add NaNO₂ solution slowly while stirring.

Conditions Required for Diazotization Reaction:

Temperature: 0°C to 5°C. Higher temperatures cause decomposition. Acidic Medium: Usually dilute HCl or H₂SO₄. Type of Amine: Only primary aromatic amines.

Mechanism of Diazotization Reaction:

Step 1: NaNO₂ + HCl → HNO₂ + NaCl Step 2: HNO₂ + H⁺ → NO⁺ + H₂O Step 3: ArNH₂ + NO⁺ → ArN₂⁺ + H₂O

Applications of Diazonium Salts:

1. Azo Dye Formation 2. Sandmeyer Reaction 3. Gattermann Reaction 4. Phenol Formation 5. Synthesis of Aromatic Compounds 6. Medicinal Chemistry Intermediates

Conclusion:

Introduction:

Diazonium salts play a vital role in synthetic organic chemistry, particularly in the preparation of aromatic compounds. Derived from aromatic primary amines, these salts serve as highly reactive intermediates for substitution and coupling reactions. Their importance lies in the ability to introduce functional groups like –OH, –Cl, –Br, –CN, and –NO₂ into aromatic rings, making them indispensable in both laboratory and industrial processes.

1. What are Diazonium Salts?

Diazonium salts are organic compounds with the general formula ArN₂⁺X⁻, where Ar is an aryl group and X⁻ is an anion such as Cl⁻, Br⁻, or BF₄⁻. They are typically formed by treating aromatic primary amines with nitrous acid at low temperatures (0–5°C).

Example:

Aniline + NaNO₂ + HCl → Benzene diazonium chloride + NaCl + H₂O

C₆H₅NH₂ + HNO₂ + HCl → C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻ + 2H₂O

2. Importance of Diazonium Salts in Aromatic Synthesis:

Diazonium salts are versatile intermediates that allow:

- Substitution reactions without harsh conditions.

- Formation of a wide variety of aromatic derivatives.

- Introduction of functional groups not directly available via electrophilic substitution.

3. Replacement Reactions (Substitution Reactions):

a. Replacement by –OH (Phenol Formation):

C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻ + H₂O → C₆H₅OH + N₂↑ + HCl

b. Replacement by Halogens (Sandmeyer Reaction):

C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻ + CuCl → C₆H₅Cl + N₂

C₆H₅N₂⁺Br⁻ + CuBr → C₆H₅Br + N₂

Gattermann Reaction:

C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻ + Cu/HCl → C₆H₅Cl + N₂

c. Replacement by –CN:

C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻ + CuCN → C₆H₅CN + N₂

4. Coupling Reactions – Formation of Azo Compounds:

Diazonium salts undergo azo coupling with phenols or aromatic amines to form brightly colored azo dyes.

Example:

C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻ + C₆H₅OH → C₆H₅–N=N–C₆H₄OH

Used extensively in:

- Textile industry

- Food colorants

- Indicator dyes

5. Applications in Industrial and Laboratory Synthesis:

- Manufacturing of azo dyes

- Synthesis of aromatic halides and phenols

- Production of pharmaceutical intermediates

- Use in agrochemical synthesis

- Preparation of complex organic compounds

6. Limitations and Precautions:

- Stability: Diazonium salts are unstable above 5°C and may decompose explosively.

- Fresh Preparation: Must be prepared fresh and used immediately.

- Safe Handling: Requires low-temperature conditions and proper lab safety protocols.

Conclusion:

Introduction:

Redox reactions (oxidation-reduction reactions) play a crucial role in chemistry, from industrial applications to biological systems. This topic is fundamental in electrochemistry, influencing processes like corrosion, energy storage, and electrode potentials. Understanding redox reactions and electrode processes helps students grasp essential concepts for competitive exams and practical applications.

Redox Reactions – An Overview:

Oxidation and Reduction

- Oxidation: Loss of electrons or increase in oxidation state.

- Reduction: Gain of electrons or decrease in oxidation state.

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents:

- Oxidizing agent: Gains electrons and gets reduced.

- Reducing agent: Loses electrons and gets oxidized.

Types of Redox Reactions:

- Combination Reactions: Two or more reactants form a single product.

- Decomposition Reactions: A compound breaks down into simpler substances.

- Displacement Reactions: One element replaces another in a compound.

- Disproportionation Reactions: The same element undergoes oxidation and reduction simultaneously.

Oxidation Number and Balancing Redox Reactions:

Oxidation Number Rules:

- The oxidation number of free elements is zero.

- Oxygen generally has an oxidation number of -2 (except in peroxides and superoxides).

- Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1 (except in metal hydrides where it is -1).

Balancing Redox Reactions:

- Oxidation Number Method: Identify oxidation state changes and balance electrons.

- Ion-Electron Method: Divide reactions into oxidation and reduction half-reactions and balance them separately.

Electrode Processes and Electrochemical Cells:

Types of Electrochemical Cells:

- Galvanic (Voltaic) Cells: Convert chemical energy into electrical energy (e.g., Daniel cell).

- Electrolytic Cells: Use electrical energy to drive non-spontaneous reactions (e.g., electrolysis of water).

Standard Electrode Potential (E°):

- The potential difference between a metal electrode and its ion solution under standard conditions.

- Measured in volts and compared to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).

Nernst Equation:

- The Nernst equation calculates the electrode potential of a cell under non-standard conditions: E = E° - (RT/nF) ln Q Where: - E = electrode potential, - E° = standard electrode potential, - R = universal gas constant, - T = temperature, - n = number of electrons transferred, - F = Faraday’s constant, - Q = reaction quotient.

Applications of Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes:

Industrial Applications:

- Metallurgy: Extraction of metals using redox processes.

- Corrosion Prevention: Galvanization and cathodic protection.

- Electroplating: Coating metals to prevent rusting.

Biological Importance:

- Cellular Respiration: Energy production in living organisms.

- Photosynthesis: Redox reactions drive glucose synthesis in plants.

Batteries and Fuel Cells:

- Lithium-ion Batteries: Power electronic devices.

- Hydrogen Fuel Cells: Alternative energy sources.

Conclusion:

Introduction:

An AC Generator (Alternating Current Generator) is an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy in the form of alternating current (AC). It operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction, discovered by Michael Faraday. AC generators are widely used in power stations and industries for generating electricity.

What is an AC Generator?

An AC Generator is a device that produces alternating current by rotating a coil within a magnetic field. The direction of the current reverses periodically due to the changing magnetic flux.

Principle of AC Generator:

The working of an AC Generator is based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, which states: When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced in it, and if the circuit is closed, an electric current flows through it.

Formula for Induced EMF:

The induced EMF is given by: E = NBAω sin(ωt)

Construction of AC Generator:

An AC Generator consists of the following components:

(i) Armature Coil - A rectangular coil of wire wound around an iron core to enhance the magnetic effect.

(ii) Magnetic Field - Produced by permanent magnets or electromagnets to generate magnetic flux.

(iii) Slip Rings - Two metal rings connected to the coil ends, allowing free rotation.

(iv) Brushes - Carbon brushes press against slip rings to transfer current to the external circuit.

(v) External Load - Connected to the output terminals to utilize the generated AC power.

Working of AC Generator:

The AC Generator works in the following steps:

Step 1 - Coil Rotation: The coil rotates within the magnetic field due to an external mechanical force (turbines, engines, etc.).

Step 2 - Magnetic Flux Change: As the coil rotates, the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes, inducing EMF.

Step 3 - Direction of Induced Current: According to Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule, the direction of the induced current reverses every half rotation, producing alternating current (AC).

Step 4 - Output Voltage Variation: The AC voltage varies sinusoidally with time and follows the equation: E = E₀ sin(ωt).

Advantages of AC Generators:

Efficient Power Transmission – AC power is easily transmitted over long distances.

Simple Design – No commutator, making it more durable than DC generators.

Cost-Effective – Less maintenance and lower manufacturing cost.

High Power Output – Used in power plants for large-scale electricity generation.

Applications of AC Generators:

Power Stations – Generate electricity for homes, industries, and businesses.

Wind Turbines – Convert wind energy into electrical energy.

Hydroelectric Plants – Water turbines rotate AC generators to produce power.

Automobiles – Used in car alternators to charge batteries.

Difference Between AC and DC Generators:

Conclusion: