#11thcenturyce

The Crusades: Causes & Goals

The Crusades were a series of military campaigns organised by Christian powers in order to retake Jerusalem and the Holy Land back from Muslim control. There would be eight officially sanctioned crusades between 1095 CE and 1270 CE and many more unofficial ones. Each campaign met with varying successes and failures but, ultimately, the wider objective of keeping Jerusalem and the Holy Land in Christian hands failed. Nevertheless, the appeal of the crusading ideal continued right up to the 16th century CE, and the purpose of this article is to consider what were the motivating factors for crusaders, from the Pope to the humblest warrior, especially for the very first campaign which established a model to be followed thereafter.

Who Wanted What in the Crusades?

Why the Crusades happened at all is a complex question with multiple answers. As the historian J. Riley-Smith notes:

It cannot be stressed often enough that crusades were arduous, disorientating, frightening, dangerous, and expensive for participants, and the continuing enthusiasm for them displayed over the centuries is not easy to explain. (10)

An estimated 90,000 men, women, and children of all classes were persuaded by political and religious leaders to participate in the First Crusade (1095-1102 CE), and their various motivations, along with those of the political and religious leaders of the time, must each be examined to reach a satisfactory explanation. Although we can never know exactly the thoughts or motivation of individuals, the general reasons why the crusading ideal was promoted and acted upon can be summarised according to the following key leaders and social groups:

The Byzantine Emperor - to regain lost territory and defeat a threatening rival state.

The Pope - to strengthen the papacy in Italy and achieve ascendancy as head of the Christian church.

Merchants - to monopolise important trading centres currently under Muslim control and earn money shipping crusaders to the Middle East.

Knights - to defend Christianity (its believers and holy places), follow the principles of chivalry and gain material wealth in this life and special favour in the next one.

Ghana Empire

The Ghana Empire flourished in West Africa from at least the 6th to 13th century CE. Not connected geographically to the modern state of Ghana, the Ghana Empire was located in the western Sudan savannah region (modern southern Mauritania and Mali) sandwiched between the Sahara desert to the north and the rainforests to the south.

Trade in the Ghana Empire was facilitated by the abundance of iron, copper, gold, and ivory and easy access to the Niger and Senegal Rivers and their tributaries. The Ghana kings, residing in the capital at Koumbi Saleh, grew immensely rich, building up stockpiles of the gold nuggets only they were permitted to possess. Consequently, the reputation of Ghana spread to North Africa and Europe, where it was described as a fabulous land of gold. The Ghana Empire crumbled from the 12th century CE following drought, civil wars, the opening up of trade routes elsewhere, and the rise of the Sosso Kingdom (c. 1180-1235 CE) and then the Mali Empire (1240-1645 CE).

West Africa & the Sudan Region

The Sudan region of West Africa (not to be confused with the modern state of that name), where the Ghana Empire would develop, had been inhabited since the Neolithic period as is evidenced by Iron Age tumuli, megaliths and remains of abandoned villages. The Niger River regularly flooded parts of this dry grassland and savannah, which provided fertile land for agriculture beginning at least 3,500 years ago, an endeavour greatly helped by the region's adequate annual rainfall. Cereals such as red-skinned African rice and millet were grown with success, as were pulses, tuber and root crops, oil and fibre plants, and fruits. Fishing and the herding of cattle and goats were other important sources of food.

Local deposits of copper were exploited and used for trade, while metalworking in the region, as indicated by archaeological finds, dates back to at least the 6th century CE. There have been many finds, too, of fine pottery, some of which was traded across the region, as indicated by chemical analysis of the clay. Similarly, gold was probably locally mined or panned and then traded along the numerous waterways of the region, but concrete evidence from this early period is lacking. Indeed, the whole history of the region and the Ghana Empire before the 11th century CE remains vague due to a lack of written sources and the rather meagre results of archaeology. However, the latter has increased dramatically in the 21st century CE, and both the antiquity and extent of West African trade, in particular, are now considered to have been greater than previously thought.

Kingdom of Kanem

The Kingdom of Kanem (aka Kanim) was an ancient African state located in modern-day Chad, which flourished from the 9th to 14th century CE. With its heartland in the centre of the African continent on the eastern shores of Lake Chad, the kingdom was formed by a confederation of nomadic peoples and then ruled by the Saifawa dynasty. The city prospered thanks to its position as the hub of trade connections with central African peoples, the Nile Valley, and North African states on the other side of the Sahara Desert. The kingdom adopted the Islamic religion after long contact with Muslim clerics and traders from the 11th century CE onwards. In the 1390s CE Kanem's king was forced to flee the invading Bulala people and so set up a new state on the other side of Lake Chad, which would become the Bornu Empire, sometimes known as the Kanem-Bornu Empire, which lasted until the late 19th century CE.

Origins & Formation

The Kingdom of Kanem, located just to the east of Lake Chad in Central Africa, may derive its name from the Teda and Kanuri term for 'south' (anem) which refers to its position in relation to the better-known states to the north. Perhaps, too, the name reflects the oral tradition that the people of Kanem had once migrated from the Sahara Desert following that region's increased desiccation. The process which saw the formation of the kingdom of Kanem is here summarised by the historian P. Curtin:

Kanem passed through a process of state-building different from that of the western Sudan. The nucleus was a nomadic confederation of peoples speaking separate languages of the Teda-Daza group, probably formed in the 9th century. Nomadic confederations of this kind are common enough in history; the unusual thing is that this one held together. Sometime before the early twelfth century it had become sedentary itself, with Njimi as its permanent capital. (75)

The first mention of Kanem in texts dates to 872 CE and the work of the Arab historian and geographer al-Yaqubi (in his Kitab al-Buldan). Even if the state may have been formed a century earlier, it confirms the above political process as we are informed that the population is still at that time mostly composed of nomads who live in huts of reeds and who have not yet formed permanent settlements. We are also told that the kings of Kanem (here and in other Arab sources called Zaghawa) also ruled over other kings, likely the tribes they had conquered in the region north and east of Lake Chad. The Arab historian al-Muhallabi, writing in the 10th century CE, notes that the kingdom now has two towns and its wealth is evidenced by large herds of cattle, sheep, camels, and horses.

Trdat the Architect

“Trdat the Architect” or Tiridates (c. 940s-c. 1020s?) was a Armenian architect who is noted for his role in the reconstruction of the Hagia Sophia's dome in Constantinople following an earthquake in the 10th century CE, as well as the Cathedral of Ani and the Church of Gagik in what is now present-day Turkey. Along with Momik (c.1270-1333 CE), Trdat is the most famous Armenian architect of the Middle Ages.

Very little if anything concrete is known about Trdat's earliest years aside from that he was Armenian with extensive talents in mathematics and architectural design. Trdat's life coincided with the medieval Armenian golden era as well as the so-called “Macedonian Renaissance” of the Byzantine Empire (867-1056 CE). After centuries of intermittent warfare and constant invasions, Armenians and Byzantines halted the tide of the Arab onslaught, stabilizing their borders and safeguarding their population centers. This was a time of political and economic stability in addition to cultural effervescence in both Armenia and Byzantium. Historians and archaeologists can trace Trdat's movements based on his construction and reconstruction projects around historical Armenia as well as the Byzantine Empire. Trdat lived and worked primarily in Shirak province, which in the 10th and 11th century CE included the city of Ani, the capital of Bagratid Armenia (885-1045 CE).

Work in Ani & Shirak

Trdat is sometimes credited as the architect responsible for the construction of several churches at the Sanahin Monastery, the Haghpat Monastery, and the Marmashen Monastery, which are all located in present-day Armenia. According to the Universal History, written by the Armenian historian Stepanos Asoghik in the 11th century CE, Trdat is mentioned by name as responsible for the construction of the Argina Cathedral, which had become the seat of the Armenian Catholicos in the late 9th century CE. Located just to the north of Ani and in a current state of partial collapse, Argina Cathedral was once an aisleless structure characterized by a dome on pendentives. This cathedral's linearity and longitudinal space divided by piers foreshadowed Trdat's subsequent work on Ani Cathedral.

Historians are able to trace Trdat's life primarily through his work in and around Ani, although it should be noted that Trdat was active in Armenia prior to and after his repair of the Hagia Sophia. Ani was a new, but grand city that stood at the crossroads of trade between the Byzantine Empire, the Abbasid Caliphate, the Kievan Rus, and the Persianate states of Central Asia. Founded in 961 CE, Ani grew quickly and at its height, it contained a population of perhaps 100,000 people. Because of the city's rapid growth, King Ashot III of Armenia (r. 953-977 CE) and his sons, King Smbat II (r. 977-989 CE) and King Gagik I (r. 989-1020 CE), ordered the construction of new walls, public spaces, caravanserai (roadside inns), and churches. Ani soon became known throughout the Near East and Mediterranean as the “city of a thousand and one churches."

In 989, Smbat II commanded Trdat to build a new cathedral in Ani and construction of this building ended around 1001-1006 CE under the supervision of Queen Katramide (c. 970-1010 CE), the wife of Gagik I and sister of King Bagrat III of Georgia (r. 1008–1014 CE). Historians contend that Trdat then worked on the Church of Gagik (occasionally referred to as Gagkasen). This church, dedicated to St. Gregory of Armenia, was built in imitation of Zvartnots Cathedral, having "brilliant splendor, lofty vaults, and a sanctuary surmounted by a heaven-like dome” ( Evans et al, 352). However, despite their similarities, Trdat elongates the church's arches and supports, and profiles large interior spaces at the Church of Gagik. Trdat here was perhaps influenced by the linear aesthetics of the Hagia Sophia and other Byzantine churches.

Vikings: Jewelry, Weapons & Social Change at The VIKINGR Exhibition

In April 2019 The Museum of Cultural History in Oslo, Norway opened its doors to the new exhibition VÍKINGR containing rich treasures and unique archaeological finds from the Viking Age (c. 750 - 1050 CE). The Viking age is considered Norway's and the rest of Scandinavia's “golden age”, and the tales of violent warrior seafarers have fascinated people all over the world for centuries. The Vikings are famous for their plundering of monasteries on the British Isles and the Viking helmet (wrongly depicted with horns in popular culture), but by visiting the VÍKINGR exhibition you will also learn that the Vikings were international traders, and that the Viking Age (c. 750 - 1050 CE) was an important period of transition in the northernmost part of Europe. This period saw the opening of new trade routes, the unification of Norway and the conversion to Christianity. The artifacts exhibited, including the world's best-preserved Viking helmet, the sword from Langeid and the largest Viking treasure ever found in Norway, are not only worth admiring for their beauty but also for what they can tell us about the Vikings' lives and values in a time of transition and change.

Walking into the exhibition, which is on the third floor of the museum, feels a bit like walking into a fancy jewelry store as it is beautifully curated with open spaces, complimentary colors and glass displays - very fitting for an exhibition consisting of invaluable jewelry, weapons, coins and other treasures. There are 20 items or collections of items on display, almost all inside the glass display cabinets, each telling their own story.

Trade & International Treasures

The first glass cabinets showcase jewelry and other items that are a testimony to the many different trade routes and international networks of the Vikings. The first Vikings of the 7th century CE were pirates in small ships, but by the 10th century CE they had built larger ships that traveled further and they established larger armies and contact points in Europe and beyond.

The items in the first display tell the story of the establishment of the silver route connecting Scandinavia with the distant east. The treasure, consisting of several silver pieces and rings, as well as Arabian and Persian coins, was originally from areas in today's Iraq and Iran. The silver treasure traveled the long way to Norway in the 10th century CE, when the Vikings who were engaged in international trade brought large amounts of silver back to Scandinavia. Further proof of the Vikings distant and exotic trade and international contact network can be seen in the next display, where the largest Norwegian Viking treasure ever found to date is showcased. The Hon Hoard was found in 1843 CE in Buskerud, Norway and consists of large gold rings, Frankish gold jewelry, Arabian coins, colorful beads, a Roman antique gemstone, and an English ring. Admiring this beautiful treasure makes you wonder what stories the items would tell of their long journeys and their Viking owners.

Especially eye-catching are some of the gold objects, originally made in the Carolingian Empire (800 - 888 CE). A large gold brooch is the most impressive piece, and it is believed to have adorned a warrior's belt at the Carolingian court before it was transformed into a brooch after coming to Norway. Other brooches are also showcased in the exhibition as they tell the story of objects that originally were used as decorative mounts on sacred objects used in churches in the British Isles. The objects were often refashioned into brooches after the Vikings raided many of these churches and brought the items back to Norway.

The Weapons of an English Medieval Knight

The weapons of an English medieval knight in combat included the long sword, wooden lance with an iron tip, metal-headed mace, battle-axe, and dagger. Trained since childhood and practised at tournaments, the skilled knight could inflict fatal injuries on even an armoured opponent. The sword, symbol of the chivalric code and his noble status, was above all the knight's most important weapon. With a heavy blade one metre in length, a 'great sword' had to be held with both hands and was remarkably stable in design from the 11th to 15th century CE. A mounted knight wielding a lance was a fearsome enough sight but a dismounted one swinging a sword that could sever limbs with one blow was an awesome psychological weapon in itself.

Training

There were several types of knights who fought in an army during wartime or performed guard duty in a castle. The largest group was composed of household knights, those who permanently served a specific lord and rode with him in war. Then there were those who were obliged to serve a lord as a knight as a form of feudal service. Another type was the mercenary knight who simply fought for whoever was willing to pay him. Finally, there were knights who belonged to a specific order such as the Templar Knights or Knight Hospitallers. Naturally, the quality and number of weapons a knight possessed depended on either the wealth of his lord or himself but this difference was largely manifested in decorative and material elements. Certain weapons were common to most knights on the medieval battlefield.

Proficiency in the use of weapons must have varied greatly between the professional knights and those performing a fixed-term of service. Young noble males would have been trained in weaponry from the age of around 10, and they would have become squires (trainee knights) from age 14. They practised with such devices as the quintain - a rotating arm with a shield at one end and a weight at the other. A knight had to hit the shield and keep riding on to avoid being hit in the back by the weight as it swung around. Another device was a suspended ring which the knight had to catch and remove with the tip of his lance. Riding a horse at full gallop and cutting at a pell or wooden post with one's sword was another training technique. A knight would have been practised at using the bow and perhaps even crossbow but, being deployed as part of a cavalry unit, did not usually use these weapons on the battlefield. When fully trained, a squire could be made a knight by their lord, usually when between the ages of 18 and 21. The martial training continued after that; after all, a fit and capable knight who could move in heavy armour, cope with the limited vision offered by his helmet, and effectively wield a sword or lance stood a much better chance of riding away from the carnage that was the medieval battlefield. If dismounted or robbed of his sword, then a knight needed to be handy with an axe, mace or, the weapon of last resort, a dagger.

Fujiwara Clan

The Fujiwara Clan (Fujiwara-shi) was a powerful extended family group which dominated all areas of Japanese government during the Heian Period (794-1185). Founded by Fujiwara no Kamatari in 645 CE, male members held on to key official positions, many acting as regents to the emperor, and ensured their daughters married into the imperial line. By the 12th century CE, Fujiwara power declined as successive emperors abdicated in favour of their own chosen heir while still maintaining their hold on power in retirement. The Fujiwara were ultimately replaced by the rival Taira and Minamoto clans.

Fujiwara no Kamatari

In the 7th century CE the court official Nakatomi, later to become Fujiwara no Kamatari (614-669 CE), became a useful ally to Prince Naka no Oe, and together they staged a coup in 645 CE which deposed the powerful Soga clan who had hitherto dominated government positions and were threatening to usurp the power of the emperor. A series of political reforms were then initiated, known as the Taika Reforms (Taika No Kaishin). These reforms were based on the Chinese model of strong central government and they nationalised land, reorganised the court ranking system, forbade the ownership of unauthorised weapons, and attempted to root out corruption. When the Prince became Emperor Tenji (661-671), he gave Nakatomi and his descendants the surname Fujiwara and made him his special minister.

Kamatari's son Fubito (aka Fuhito, 659-720 CE) married the daughter of Emperor Mommu, and his four grandsons each formed the four branches of the Fujiwara clan: Nanke (Southern House), Hokke (Northern House), Shikike (Ceremonials House), and Kyoke (Capital House). The Fujiwara line was now firmly established and they would keep a tenacious grip on power as they not only dominated policy and government bodies such as the household treasury office (kurando-dokoro) and Council of State but also managed to marry off their daughters to emperors.

Further weakening the royal position was the fact that many emperors took the throne as children and so were governed by a regent (Sessho), usually a representative of the Fujiwara family. In total there would be 21 Fujiwara regents from 804 CE to 1238 CE. Even when the emperor reached adulthood, he was still advised by a new position, the Kampaku, which ensured the Fujiwara maintained their influence. To guarantee this situation was perpetuated new emperors were nominated not by birth but by their sponsors and encouraged or forced to abdicate when in their thirties in favour of a younger successor. Thus, for example, between 858 and 956 CE there were 10 different emperors. As a consequence, key Fujiwara members could act as regent to three or four successive emperors in their own lifetime.