Safeguarding the Consumer
A Comparative Examination of Electricity Access and Rights in Nigeria and the United Kingdom
By Felix Orok - Associate
Introduction
Electricity is not only a technical commodity but also a political and socio-economic infrastructure whose policies shape people's lives. Nigeria faces socio-economic inequality and a lack of effective enforcement policies, which make electricity a luxury rather than a right. The UK's liberalisation approach has issues, but it is more focused on consumer protection. The Nigerian Electricity Act, 2025 (as amended), will introduce changes to place greater emphasis on consumer interests; however, there remain problems of unreliable power supply, unpredictable billing, and lack of clarity regarding redress. Conversely, the UK energy law framework, establishing bodies such as Ofgem, provides protection for vulnerable groups and transparency for suppliers. The article will investigate the relationship between the laws governing electricity access, their actual effects, regulatory application, dispute resolution, and electricity affordability, using the practical implementation of these regulations through legislation and in relation to broader political and economic factors.
Legal and Regulatory Framework in Nigeria
The Electricity Act 2025, as amended in Nigeria, marks a significant shift towards consumer-centric regulation[1] by consolidating prior power sector legislation and introducing provisions, including compulsory meter installation prior to energisation and the establishment of a Power Consumer Assistance Fund for disadvantaged consumers.[2] It makes problems easier by requiring exhaustion of internal remedies before initiating court proceedings.[3] To further augment the Act, NERC's Customer Protection Regulations and Bill of Rights define rights to a dependable supply, open invoicing, clear contract terms, prompt complaint resolution, and data privacy.[4]
Under the new legislative framework, NERC is the highest authority at the institutional level assigned tasks, including licensing, tariff approval, and service quality monitoring.[5] Approved to manage escalated problems through assigned channels; occasionally, administrative delays or inadequate staff prevent resolution.[6] Distribution companies must adhere to quality-of-service criteria and install operational meters before energisation; however, limited funding and extensive infrastructure constraints sometimes delay meter installation, resulting in reliance on estimated billing and undermining customer confidence.[7]
Consumer claims in the Act are operationalised by the NERC Customer Protection Regulations 2023, which bring most service-wide minimum standards into compliance-relevant obligations that can be measured in respect of service failures.[8] This tool plays a key role in converting Statutory ambitions into compliance-relevant duties in a form that is measurable in terms of service failures. However, as earlier consumer-protection literature demonstrates, regulatory adequacy can coexist with persistent consumer deprivation where awareness is low and enforcement is inconsistent.[9] Accordingly, the central legal problem is not the absence of rights, but the conditions under which rights become usable: access to meters, transparency of bills, functional grievance pathways, and credible sanctions that change DisCo behaviour.
Lastly, the post-2023 decentralisation structure still centres on consumer outcomes, yet the latest proposals to amend it highlight the tension between local sensitivity and national cohesion. The 2025 Amendment review reflects ambitious coordination goals and re-centralising levers that can influence the extent to which state-level consumer protection can realistically deviate from federal market regulation.[10] Concerning consumer protection, decentralisation would enhance performance whereby state institutions are both viable and sufficiently financed, a harmonisation mechanism which avoids regulatory fragmentation, and the federal government is restricted to stability-specific matters but not normal consumer protection.
Legal and Regulatory Framework in the UK
Despite its robustness, the UK's electrical law regime conceals fundamental tensions between genuine consumer empowerment and market demand. The institutional culture promotes their utilisation; therefore, they are pertinent in their own right when the regulator undertakes legislative responsibilities related to supply, performance standards, information mandates, and grievance procedures.[11] Consumer protection laws aim to ensure equitable terms and service quality; their efficacy depends on customers' ability to identify and assert their rights, as well as the accessibility of dispute-resolution mechanisms.
Legal licensing regulations and strategic initiatives aim to convert intangible rights into assets. Criteria for smart meter deployment have been established, including installation targets with penalties for delays, which illustrate attempts to attain quantifiable outcomes.[12] Nonetheless, variations in supplier performance and sporadic regulatory leniency reveal limitations in capacity and resolve. While their success relies on digital literacy, trust in data governance, and equitable access to technological advantages, initiatives designed to empower individuals to control their energy data embody progressive digitalisation objectives.[13]
Targeted discounts and temporary debt-relief measures are viable strategies that recognise energy supply as a social commodity alongside its commercial attributes.[14] Regulatory preparedness to hold providers responsible is evident in enforcement actions that require restitution for delayed or incorrect payments; however, the constraints of limited resources, stringent eligibility requirements, and the ephemeral nature of relief underscore the deficiencies in these safety nets. Initiatives targeting disadvantaged families provide significant support; yet disparities in distribution and identification undermine the efficacy of official registries in ensuring necessary protection.
Decreasing complaint rates indicate improved service, suggesting that potential customers' ignorance or apathy implies that statutory rights function primarily as safety nets rather than reliable assurances; dispute-resolution mechanisms provide essential avenues for recourse.[15] Ongoing discussions regarding price equity, particularly proposals to reassess standing charges or implement cross-subsidies, highlight the ethical dilemmas present in market-driven systems: how to reconcile cost-reflective pricing with equitable access amidst overarching economic pressures that threaten energy security. These tensions demonstrate that an advanced system must constantly evaluate whether market activities align with or oppose societal objectives. UK electricity law underscores the ambiguous nature of consumer rights, even inside legislative frameworks. Realisation necessitates a legal framework that accommodates power disparities, is capable of objective enforcement, and is prepared to contest market norms when they conflict with social fairness. Digital inclusion, proactive outreach, and ongoing education, qualities often impeded by personnel and budgetary limitations, constitute the essence of genuine consumer empowerment. A meticulous examination of this experience reveals many contexts: relying solely on formal models without considering the underlying political economy and institutional capabilities may exacerbate the disparity between legal aspirations and actual realities. Even industrialised societies must contemplate the pragmatic implementation of law, how authorities reconcile economic incentives with welfare objectives, how consumers navigate challenging marketplaces, and whether protections provide tangible outcomes or only theoretical ones. This perspective elucidates the theoretical efficacy, underlying processes, and practical applications of UK methodologies before their adoption across various contexts.
Comparative Analysis
The juxtaposition of Nigeria and the UK with respect to electricity access and consumer rights illustrates not only varying levels of regulatory development but also fundamentally divergent political and economic environments that shape the realisation of legal commitments in everyday life. In Nigeria, the aspiration for universal service is codified in recent legislation; however, it faces significant challenges due to ongoing infrastructure deficits and constrained public budgets. The initiatives undertaken by state electrification agencies reflect a localised dedication to broaden access; however, the lack of cohesive coordination between federal and state entities, along with governance challenges, frequently results in these efforts being inadequately funded or disjointed.[16] In contrast, the UK's nearly universal connectivity redirects the discourse from fundamental access to the reliability and integration of decentralised generation.[17] However, even in this context, maintaining resilience for vulnerable populations necessitates ongoing regulatory oversight.
Consequently, as Nigeria confronts the formidable task of expanding its supply, the UK faces the imperative of sustaining quality in a multifaceted, market-oriented landscape. The takeaway is that universal-service objectives cannot be applied uniformly; they must be adapted to the specific circumstances of infrastructure capacity, fiscal constraints, and institutional cohesion.
The clarity in metering and billing further exemplifies the differing operational challenges faced in Nigeria. Nigeria's legal provisions for meter installation prior to energisation pose enduring practical challenges, including financing deficiencies, supply-chain disruptions, and pervasive consumer scepticism, which together contribute to widespread reliance on estimated billing practices.[18] The accumulation of each estimated charge diminishes trust in the system, fostering a detrimental cycle in which scepticism hampers collaboration for meter installation. At the same time, the absence of precise consumption data weakens the foundation for effective policy formulation.
The UK's experience with smart meters demonstrates that ensuring installation timelines and providing compensation for delays can enhance accountability.[19] However, it also reveals that even well-defined standards may fail if enforcement is inconsistent or if suppliers neglect more challenging segments. Furthermore, issues related to digital literacy and privacy concerns may impede widespread adoption.[20] In Nigeria, it is evident that merely replicating guaranteed standards without addressing underlying issues, such as establishing sustainable financing models for meter deployment and implementing trust-building measures, will likely not be sufficient to bridge the existing gap. Any adaptation must instead address the challenges of financing infrastructure, developing institutional enforcement capacity, and promoting consumer engagement to alleviate concerns about billing and disconnection.
The issues of affordability and the safeguarding of vulnerable consumers introduce an additional dimension of complexity. In Nigeria, the statutory provisions indicate potential mechanisms for relief; however, the absence of explicit eligibility criteria and dedicated funding streams may render such measures largely rhetorical. A significant number of households engage in self-generation, incurring substantial expenses that ultimately undermine the legislation's intended social safety functions.[21] The structured schemes in the UK, including targeted discounts, winter support, and priority registers, exemplify the capacity of regulatory design to integrate social welfare into a market framework.[22]
These initiatives rely heavily on stable funding, accurate targeting, and efficient administration. Even in more affluent contexts, eligibility criteria can inadvertently exclude individuals who are on the cusp of needing assistance, and temporary relief measures may fail to address the persistent issue of energy poverty. This prompts the question: should Nigeria pursue a more modest version of these schemes, or consider alternative frameworks, such as community-based cooperatives or tiered tariffs, that are better aligned with its fiscal constraints and the characteristics of its informal economy? The solution lies more in critical adaptation than in mere imitation: it involves understanding the practical workings of affordability programs, the political compromises they entail, and their connections to other social policies.
The processes of complaint resolution and enforcement highlight the disparity between formal rights and the ability to obtain redress. Nigerian regulatory bodies have established frameworks for addressing grievances; however, the effectiveness of these mechanisms is frequently undermined by low consumer awareness and constrained institutional capacity. In contrast, the ombudsman system and advisory services in the UK offer more defined avenues for resolving disputes.[23] However, the low volume of complaints may indicate either consumer satisfaction or resignation; individuals may feel that submitting a complaint will not result in meaningful change. Both contexts highlight that merely establishing a complaint mechanism is insufficient without proactive outreach, transparent outcomes, and feedback loops that can effectively influence policy.
In Nigeria, enhancing digital platforms and community liaison channels can significantly improve accessibility. However, such advancements must be accompanied by demonstrable enforcement to foster public trust.[24] Similarly, the experience in the UK serves as a cautionary tale, emphasising the necessity for regulators to remain vigilant and proactive in maintaining redress mechanisms that adapt to changing market conditions and consumer expectations.
Ultimately, the processes of stakeholder engagement and consent illuminate the mechanisms by which regulatory legitimacy is established.[25] In Nigeria, the approach to consultations appears largely ad hoc, and no formal consumer council has been established within the framework of electricity legislation. This constrains end users' ability to influence policy or ensure provider accountability, beyond merely expressing grievances. The UK's structured approach to licence modifications, data-sharing initiatives, and vulnerability strategies provides a valuable framework for institutionalising consumer input.
However, even in this context, engagement may remain superficial if regulators lack the resources to effectively reach diverse communities or if the intricate nature of energy markets discourages substantive participation. Authentic empowerment requires a commitment to education, clear communication about policy trade-offs, and systems that convert feedback into tangible reforms. In Nigeria, establishing localised consumer forums or collaborating with civil society organisations could effectively anchor regulatory decisions in the lived experiences of the populace. However, the efficacy of such initiatives will hinge on ensuring that these entities possess genuine influence and are not marginalised by entrenched interests.
Recommendations
Regulatory Competence through Contextual Engagement: Due to the budget limitation and political pressure by NERC, mass hiring and expensive technology implementations cannot be practiced. Rather, it is useful to collaborate with the university or development agencies to provide training programs and integrate basic digital reporting systems, such as SMS-based systems, with community liaison officers. These attempts rooted regulation in consumer facts.
Contextual Calibration of Service Standards: Service standards like install meter or repair outage services must take logistical and architectural constraints into consideration. Pilot studies in urban areas can provide benchmarks, accounting for seasonal fluctuations and supply chain disruptions. Easy, non-financial, and low-credit solutions will help manage client expectations without affecting business viability. All these programs develop responsibility.
Specific Affordability Mechanism: Lifeline tariffs rely on reliable information, but tariffs tend to have losses in low metering rates. Cooperation with local cooperatives can enhance beneficiary identification, whereas donor-funded pilot programs should be used to assess feasibility. Simple feedback systems, such as community polls, enable flexibility without requiring costly bureaucratic procedures.
Arranging Customer Engagement: True engagement must be transparent and be willing to listen. Seminars conducted at the regional level through community structures can emphasise personal stories, and attendees will receive brief action plans. This will help build trust and can be extended nationwide to achieve significant participation.
Consumer Education through Cooperation and Narrative: by working with NGOs, universities, and religious organisations to develop short films, radio programs, and community theatre, rights and procedures become available. The use of visual aids and interactive meetings increases understanding, and incorporating these activities into current campaigns enhances sustainability.
Research and Multi-stakeholder Cooperation: To streamline the resources available to conduct research on cost-recovery and consumer behaviour, the regulators can use local engagements and virtual roundtables. There should be clear procedures for translating results into policy change, but this process is likely to become complicated due to political and economic factors.
Conclusion
Achieving UK-equivalent standards is a protracted endeavour universally. Immediate complete replication is improbable due to Nigeria's institutional, budgetary, and infrastructural constraints. Through established service obligations, incremental recompense, community-oriented affordability, iterative trials, and genuine engagement, fundamental principles can gradually bridge the gap between legal assurances and everyday realities. Success relies on securing modest yet sustained support, cultivating political commitment to empower regulators, and integrating continuous learning mechanisms to ensure that changes adapt to evolving circumstances.
References
[1] See the Explanatory Memorandum to the Electric Power Sector Reform (EPSR) Act 2005
[2] Timilehin Adebayo, ‘An Analysis Of The Nigerian Electricity Act Of 2023 And Its Effect On Electricity Generation In Nigeria’ (SSRN, 26 June 2023) https://ssrn.com/abstract=5112055 accessed 18 June 2025
[3] See Section 51 of the Electricity Act 2023 (as amended 2025), see the decision of the Federal High Court in Manufacturers Association of Nigeria & Ors. v. Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission & Ors. (FHC/L/CS/881/2024).
[4] Ngozi Maureen Idih and Chinedu Titus Njoku, ‘Consumer Protection for Users of Energy under the Nigerian Electricity Act 2023’ (2025) PJLTI vol 1 no 1 67
[5] See Section 33 (3) of the Electricity Act, 2023 (as amended 2024)
[6] Adeola F Adenikinju, Analysis of the Cost of Infrastructure Failures in a Developing Economy: The Case of the Electricity Sector in Nigeria (African Economic Research Consortium Research Paper 148, Nairobi, February 2005).
[7] A O Soyemi, I A Samuel, A A Olajubé Ayobami and A A Akinmeji, ‘The Challenges of Estimated Billing on Electricity Consumers in Nigeria: A Review’ (2021) IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 730 012025 doi:10.1088/1755‑1315/730/1/012025.
[8] Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC), Customer Protection Regulations 2023.
[9] Festus Okechukwu Ukwueze and Peace Chiedozie Onubuleze, ‘Appraisal of the Protection of the Rights and Interests of Electricity Consumers in Nigeria’ (2019) 92 Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization 137 (DOI: 10.7176/JLPG/92-14).
[10] George Etomi & Partners, Review of the Electricity Act (Amendment) Bill 2025 (2025).
[11] Maria Ioannidou and Despoina Mantzari, ‘The UK Domestic Gas Electricity (Tariff Cap) Act: Re‑Regulating the Retail Energy Market’ (Modern Law Review, forthcoming) https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3266371 accessed 18 June 2025
[12] Tasmia Rahman, ‘Analysis of Smart Meter Functionalities in the Electricity Market and Network Management’ (2024) [university thesis / report] https://www.academia.edu/107956491/Analysis_of_Smart_Meter_Functionalities_in_the_Electricity_Market_and_Network_Management accessed 18 June 2025.
[13] Fiona Shirani, Christopher Groves, Karen Henwood, Nick Pidgeon, and Erin Roberts, ‘“I’m the Smart Meter”: Perceptions of Smart Technology Amongst Vulnerable Consumers’ (2020) Energy Policy 144, 111637, doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111637. en.wikipedia.org+7
[14] Nicolas Arregui, Oya Celasun, Dora Iakova, Aiko Mineshima, Victor Mylonas, Frederik Toscani, Yu‑Ching Wong, Li Zeng and Jing Zhou, Targeted, Implementable, and Practical Energy Relief Measures for Households in Europe (International Monetary Fund Working Paper No 2022/262, 16 December 2022) https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/001/2022/262/article-A001-en.xml accessed 18 June 2025
[15] Onyi Iyizoba, ‘Rights of an Electricity Consumer in Nigeria’ (BusinessDay, 22 March 2021) https://businessday.ng/energy/article/rights-of-an-electricity-consumer-in-nigeria/ accessed 18 June 2025.
[16] Norbert Edomah, Gogo Ndulue and Xavier Lemaire, ‘A Review of Stakeholders and Interventions in Nigeria’s Electricity Sector’ (2021) Heliyon 7(9) e07956, 1–20 DOI:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07956.
[17] Sustainable Energy Futures Ltd, Enabling Decentralised Energy Innovation: Barriers and Solutions (Innovate UK, 3 February 2023) https://www.ukri.org/publications/enabling-decentralised-energy-innovation/ accessed 18 June 2025
[18] Ibid (n) 7
[19] Ofgem, Ofgem sets out new rules to boost smart meter standards and compensation (Press Release, 28 March 2025) https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/press-release/ofgem-sets-out-new-rules-boost-smart-meter-standards-and-compensation accessed 18 June 2025.
[20] Folasade M Dahunsi, Olawumi A Abdul‑Lateef, Adegoke O Melodi, Akinlolu A Ponnle, Oluwafemi A Sarumi and Kazeem A Adedeji, ‘Smart Grid Systems in Nigeria: Prospects, Issues, Challenges and Way Forward’ (June 2022) FUOYE Journal of Engineering and Technology 7(2) 183–192, doi:10.46792/fuoyejet.v7i2.781.
[21] Musiliu O Oseni, ‘Self‑Generation and Households’ Willingness to Pay for Reliable Electricity Service in Nigeria’ (2017) The Energy Journal 38(4) 165–194, doi:10.5547/01956574.38.4.mose.
[22] Fuel Poverty Committee, Can Fuel Poverty Be Ended? Committee on Fuel Poverty Annual Report 2024 (UK Government, July 2024) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/committee-on-fuel-poverty-annual-report-2024/can-fuel-poverty-be-ended-committee-on-fuel-poverty-annual-report-2024 accessed 18 June 2025
[23] Ibid (n) 11
[24] Fortune Nwaiwu, ‘Digitalisation and Sustainable Energy Transitions in Africa: Assessing the Impact of Policy and Regulatory Environments on the Energy Sector in Nigeria and South Africa’ (2021) Energy, Sustainability and Society 11, 48, doi:10.1186/s13705‑021‑00325‑1.
[25] Ibid (n) 10
