My dream museum

Genmei (661-721) was Japan's fourth empress regnant. She was Empress Jitō's half-sister and her match in terms of ambition and political skills. Her rule was characterized by a development of culture and innovations. 

Ruling after her son

Like Jitō (645-703), Genmei was the daughter of Emperor Tenji but was born from a different mother. Jitō was both her half-sister and mother-in-law since Genmei had married the empress’ son, Prince Kusakabe (662-689). She had a son with him, Emperor Monmu (683-707). 

Kusakabe died early and never reigned, which led to Jitō's enthronement. The empress was then succeeded by her grandson Monmu. The latter’s reign was short. In his last will, he called for his mother to succeed him in accordance with the “immutable law” of her father Tenji. Genmei accepted. 

Steadfast and ambitious 

Genmei was made from the same mold as her half-sister. She proved to be a fearless sovereign, undeterred by military crises. 

She pursued Jitō's policies, strengthening the central administration and keeping the power in imperial hands. Among her decisions were the proscription of runaway peasants and the restriction of private ownership of mountain and field properties by the nobility and Buddhist temples. 

Another of her achievements was transferring the capital at Heijō-kyō (Nara) in 710, turning it into an unprecedented cultural and political center. Her rule saw many innovations. Among them were the first attempt to replace the barter system with the Wadō copper coins, new techniques for making brocade twills and dyeing and the settlement of experimental dairy farmers.

A protector of culture

Genmei sponsored many cultural projects. The first was the Kojiki, written in 712 it told Japan’s history from mythological origins to the current rulers. In its preface, the editor Ō no Yasumaro praised the empress:

“Her Imperial Majesty…illumines the univers…Ruling in the Purple Pavillion, her virtue extends to the limit of the horses’ hoof-prints…It must be saif that her fame is greater than that of Emperor Yü and her virtue surpasses that of Emperor Tang (legendary emperors of China)”.

In 713, she ordered the local governments to collect local legends and oral traditions as well as information about the soil, weather, products and geological and zoological features. Those local gazetteers (Fudoki) were an invaluable source of Japan’s ancient tradition.

Several of Genmei’s poems are included in the Man'yōshū anthology, including a reply by one of the court ladies. 

Listen to the sounds of the warriors' elbow-guards;

Our captain must be ranging the shields to drill the troops.

– Genmei Tennō

Reply:

Be not concerned, O my Sovereign;

Am I not here,

I, whom the ancestral gods endowed with life,

Next of kin to yourself

– Minabe-hime

From mother to daughter 

Genmei abdicated in 715 and passed the throne to her daughter, empress Genshō (680-748) instead of her sickly grandson prince Obito. This was an unprecedented situation, making the Nara period the pinnacle of female monarchy in Japan. 

Genmei would oversee state affairs until she died in 721. Before her death, she shaved her head and became a nun, becoming the first Japanese monarch to take Buddhist vows and establishing a long tradition.

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“From the Onin War’s start in 1467, the Japanese islands were almost continuously at war for a full century. Kita came from two high-ranking samurai families in northern Japan, the Oniniwa and Katakura, who served local lord Date Terumune. At the time, the Date clan was but one among many in the region, with far more powerful, blue-blooded, influential and potentially dangerous ruling clans for neighbors. Like many warrior-caste daughters during this era of civil upheaval, Kita knew how to fight. What set her apart was a pronounced interest in and aptitude for the martial arts and military science. She was so skilled that she took it upon herself to act as a teacher to her half-brother Kagetsuna, who was heir to the Katakura headship.

The Date clan was slowly putting itself back together after infighting nearly destroyed it when, in 1567, a new heir, Bontenmaru, was born. Terumune ordered, Kita, then 29, to serve as wet nurse to the newborn. His birth mother, Yoshi, showed little interest in being maternal, and at certain times even tried to have him murdered to advance her own family’s political interests. Kita, by contrast, was especially close to Bontenmaru. Over the years, she nourished not only his body but also became one of his earliest teachers in both the literary and martial arts, helping shape him into a leader whose reputation in battle and politics earned him the moniker of One-Eyed Dragon. 

Japan's third empress regnant, Empress Jitō (645-703) was a powerful and effective ruler. Shrewd, bold and clever, she walked in the footsteps of empresses Suiko and Saimei and prevailed against all odds.

A troubled youth 

Jitō was the daughter of Prince Naka no Ōe, the son of empress regnant Saimei. The year she was born, her father killed a minister in front of his mother, leading to her abdication.

Jitō’s maternal grandfather committed suicide three years later, having been wrongly accused of plotting against Prince Naka no Ōe. Jitō’s mother, Ochi, died of grief. Jitō was thus placed in her grandmother's care and raised by the former empress.

At age 12, she was married to her paternal uncle, Prince Ōama, who was 27. Jitō was a reserved person with a brilliant intelligence and much liked by the court. She was curious, open-minded and studied Chinese literature. The death of her grandmother in 661 pained her greatly. In 663, Jitō gave birth to her only child: prince Kusakabe. Her father then ascended took the throne as Emperor Tenji in 667.

Succession struggle

The question of Emperor Tenji’s succession soon arose. The sovereign favored Jitō’s half-brother, Prince Ōtomo, but Prince Ōama had his own ambitions. He and Jitō left the court, waiting for an opportunity to strike. 

Ōtomo indeed succeeded Tenji, but Ōama revolted against him soon after with Jitō's support. When they arrived at Ise province, she dressed in male clothes and personally addressed the troops. She also worked on tactical plans. As Ōama left to leave an offensive in Ōmi province, Jitō took command of the troops stationed at Ise. She had indeed volunteered to defend the shrine dedicated to the sun Goddess, Amaterasu.

Their joint efforts led to their success. Ōama ascended the throne in 673 as emperor Tenmu, with Jitō becoming his co-ruler.

"Sana studied Hokushin Ittō ryū at a young age along with her siblings. She had a great interest in bujutsu as she learned many things, such as kenjutsu. It is recorded that Sana was exceptionally skilled in using the kodachi (short sword), that she received menkyo kaiden (mastery level) in kodachijutsu at the age of fourteen. Her older sister taught her naginatajutsu, which was quite renowned due to Sadakichi’s efforts in developing it.

When Sana was 19, she went to Uwajima Domain as a kenjutsu instructor for the Date family to train their daughter named Masako (政子姫). During her time there, she had a sparring match with the soon-to-be 9th domain head, Date Mune’e (age 27), and was able to win against him. "

Suiko (554-628) is regarded as Japan’s first empress regnant. Far from being a mere figurehead, she left a lasting impact.

Though she is the first female ruler in the traditional order chronology, Japanese history hints at previous female rulers such as queens Himiko and Iyo of Yamatai during the 3rd century. There was also the case of Princess Itoyo, daughter of Emperor Richū, who refused the throne but ruled during 484 and 485 until a new sovereign was enthroned.

Rise of a sovereign

Suiko was described as beautiful and forward-thinking. At the age of seventeen, she married her half-brother Bidatsu and was his consort for sixteen years. She didn’t immediately ascend the throne after his death. Her predecessor, Shushun, became embroiled in a conflict with Suiko’s powerful uncle: Soga no Umako, resulting in his assassination. 

Suiko was thus chosen as a ruler to appease the tensions. Her ties to the influential Soga clan were another argument in her favor. She refused at first, but ultimately accepted and ascended to the throne in 593, at the age of 39. One of her first decisions was to set her capital in the port town of Settsu to better serve the Soga’s commercial interests. 

Yamamoto Yaeko - Heroic defender of Aizu

If you want to read about another heroine of this battle, you can check out my article on Nakano Takeko.

In autumn 1868 the domain of Aizu, Japan, was under attack by the imperial troops. Women within the castle actively took part in the defense. 

They prepared ammunition, cooked meals, nursed the wounded, but also risked their lives in extinguishing the fires and rushed to cover the enemy canon balls with wet mats before they exploded. Young girls also collected the enemy ammunition for the defenders to reuse it. A 60 years old woman went out of the castle to retrieve food, but encountered an enemy soldier on the way. She stabbed him with her dagger and safely went back to the castle. A female bodyguard unit also protected Matsudaira Teruhime, the lord’s sister.

Some of them also fought. A contemporary witness depicts them as ready to don their white kimono and fight naginata  in hand. An observer also said that they shared all the men’s burden, took on watches and shouldered a rifle if needed.

Among them was Yamamoto Yaeko (1845-1932), who distinguished herself through her leadership and her skills with firearms, though she wasn’t the only woman to use  them in the defense. She was the daughter of an artillery instructor and her brother Kakuma had taught her to use firearms. She was particularly competent, being able to use recent models like the Spencer rifle and had also learned to fight with a naginata. 

On October 8, Yaeko began to take part in night sorties. She had asked another female defender, Takagi Tokio, to cut her hair short like a male samurai. Armed with her Spencer rifle, she was dressed like a man and had two swords at her belt. She also commanded the men in charge of one of the cannons and didn’t abandon her post, even as cannon balls rained on the castle.

In spite of this fierce resistance, Aizu surrender on November 5, 1868. In an ultimate gesture of defiance, Teruhime ordered the women to clean the whole castle in order to humiliate the enemy as soon as they would set a foot in it and to show that the Aizu spirit was still unbroken. 

When the castle fell, Yaeko was made prisoner with the men. After being freed, she divorced from her first husband went to Kyoto to find her brother Kakuma. There, she met and married Nijima Jô, converted to Christianity and helped him to found Doshisha university. She later became a nurse for the Red Cross and served as such during the Russo-Japanese war in 1905. Another woman who fought in Aizu’s defense, Yamakawa Futaba, also became a promoter of women’s education.

(Yamamoto Yaeko in her later years, c.1929)

Today, a statue of Yamamoto Yaeko can be seen in Aizu. There’s also a TV-show based on her life: Yae no Sakura. 

Here’s the link to my Ko-Fi if you want to support me.

Bibliography:

Shiba Gorô, Remembering Aizu: the testament of Shiba Gorô

“Samurai warrior queens” documentary

Nakano Takeko - The swan song of samurai warrior women

In 1868, Japan was facing drastic political changes. The arrival of American ships in 1853 forced a country who had been closed to foreigners for the last two centuries to open. This led a to movement of distrust toward the Tokugawa shogunate  and culminated in the restoration of the emperor’s power.

Some clans and domains didn’t accept this situation and stayed loyal to the shogunate. Such was the case with the Matsudaira of Aizu. In autumn 1868,  Aizu came under attack by the imperial troops. Aizu was a conservative domain, its warriors strictly followed the samurai traditions. The women were trained with the naginata and to knew how to use a dagger for ritual suicide or self-defense. 

When the imperial troops arrived, some women decided to commit suicide, taking with them their children or elderly relatives to avoid being a burden for the defenders or fearing capture. A woman named Kawahara Asako beheaded her daughter and stepmother before taking her naginata to fight against the invaders. She survived her first sortie and was ultimately forced to withdraw to the castle.

Other women decided to fight, and one of them was Nakano Takeko (1847-1868). Takeko was 22 when the battle began. The daughter of an Aizu councilor, she excelled in martial arts, poetry and calligraphy. On October 8, the alarm bell rang as the enemy managed to enter the town. Takeko immediately joined, with her mother, Kôko, and her 16 years old sister Masako (also sometimes called Yûko), a group made of men and women to fight the intruders.

The defenders, however, decided to close the castle gates and the three women found themselves blocked outside. They decided to join the outpost were the Aizu soldiers were stationed and were joined on the way by other women. Each of them had decided to cut their hair like a male samurai. They wore a white headband and a hakama. They had two swords at their belts and were armed with a naginata.

Between 20 and 30 women ultimately joined was later called the joshigun or “women’s unit”. Takeko went to the leader of a squad of Aizu soldiers and asked to be allowed to fight. He refused at first, arguing that if the enemy saw women among the Aizu soldiers, they would think that the domain was on the verge of defeat. Takeko then threatened to commit suicide if she wasn’t allowed to fight. She and the other women were placed under commander Furuya who ultimately accepted their demand.

The next day, the Aizu forces and the joshigun, attacked the imperial troops at Yanagi bridge, hoping to break through and go back to the castle. The women were unafraid, even if they had to charge at men equipped with firearms. When the enemies saw that they were women, they gave at first the order to capture them alive. 

Takeko killed 5 or 6 men with her naginata, but was shot in the head and/or in the heart and died. Her younger sister didn’t want Takeko’s head to be taken by the enemy as a trophy. She thus tried to cut it, but couldn’t do it and asked an Aizu soldier for help. Masako managed to bring her sister’s head to Hokkai-ji temple where it was buried.

On October 13, the surviving women arrived to the castle with Hirata Kochô as their leader. They kept fighting and force some of them participated in the defense as sharpshooters. 

Masako was among the members of the joshigun who survived the castle’s fall. She went afterward went to Hakkodate, Hokkaido. 

Today, Takeko’s naginata is kept at Hokkai-ji. A statue as been erected in her honor in the town of Aizu. Each year, young women play the role of the jôshigun at the Aizu festival.

Takeko’s death poem, that she had tied to her naginata, was: 

“I would not dare to count myself among all the famous warriors - even though I share the same brave heart”.

She was among the last samurai warrior women. Women took arms during the 1877 Satsuma rebellion to prevent the samurai status’ and privileges from being abolished, but to no avail.

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Sources: 

Shiba Gorô, Remembering Aizu: the testament of Shiba Gorô

“Samurai warrior queens” documentary 

Wright Diana E., “Female combatants and Japan’s Meiji restauration: the case of Aizu “

The warrior women of Hondo 

(Print: Female warrior, Takeuchi Keishu) 

In 1589, minor landowners of the Amakusa Islands, Japan, rebelled against the feudal lord Konishi Yukinaga. A military expedition was thus sent to attack the castles of Shiki and Hondo, and women put up a desperate resistance. 

Jesuit missionary Luís Fróis, who may have been present in Hondo, describes the  fight of the castle’s women, many of whom had seen their husbands killed and wounded. The wife of the castle’s commander and the wives of his senior retainers gathered other women. They made their confessions to the priests, as many people in Hondo had converted to Christianity, and resolved themselves to die in battle.

As Fróis told:

“In order to fight freely and without any hindrance, as a group they cut off their hair, and so that their long kimonos would not get in the way they discretely tied up the hems. Certain of them put on armor, others wore swords at their belts, others too had spears, still others had various weapons on their persons, and in addition they had rosaries and reliquaries hanging round their necks”.

The women went out the broken castle gate and immediately attacked the enemy: 

“One section of the moat was almost filled with the enemy soldiers killed by the women. Yet, whatever the immediate outcome may have been, Toranuske’s soldiers possessed numerical superiority, and even though the women had overcome some male enemy soldiers, they could not tolerate the dishonor of defeat by the surviving women and children, so in a scene that must have been terrifying they responded with a fierce attack, and out of the 300 women there were only two survivors, both of whom were severely wounded. (…) Later the enemy soldiers would remark: “The warriors of Hondo were not men. They were women and children, yet the men who were fighting were surpassed by the dauntless courage of these warriors”. 

Bibliography:

Friday Karl F., Japan Emerging: Premodern History to 1850

Yuki no Kata - Warrior lady of Anōtsu castle 

Yuki no Kata (fl.1600) was the wife of Tomita Nobutaka, lord of Anōtsu castle, Mie Prefecture, Japan. Little is known about her early life apart from the fact that she excelled at fighting. 

Yuki no Kata is remembered for her exploits during the conflicts that led to the ascension of the Tokugawa shogunate She found herself commanding the castle’s forces in several occasions while her husband was fighting on the Tokugawa’s side. In 1600, Yuki no Kata successfully defended the castle against an enemy army.

Yuki no Kata is also remembered for saving her husband’s life on the battlefield. Tomita Nobutaka had been commanded to return to Anōtsu and found himself surrounded by the enemy. A young samurai with a very feminine face came to his rescue. It was in fact Yuki no Kata who had donned armor. She killed several enemy soldiers and she and her husband managed to escape safely. It is said that even Tokugawa Ieyasu was impressed by her courage after hearing of her exploit.

Here’s the link to my Ko-Fi if you want to support me.

References:

Amdur Ellis, Old school: essays on Japanese martial traditions

“The wife of Tomita Nobutaka”, Touken World (in Japanese)

Hangaku Gozen - Deadly archer

Hangaku (c.1172- after 1201) was the daughter of the head of the Jō family, a warrior clan from Echigo province, Japan. 

In 1201, Hangaku family’s had become embroiled in a conflict with the Kamakura shogunate. She found herself besieged by their troops in the clan’s castle. Hangaku led the defense and showed her skills as a military commander. The Azuma Kagami chronicle recounts that Hangaku was a particularly talented archer. She thus climbed on the roof of a watchtower and killed and wounded many enemy soldiers with her arrows. 

Hangaku was ultimately wounded in both legs and captured. She was taken to Kamakura and brought to shogun Minamoto no Yoriie. Though the situation was dire, Hangaku maintained her dignity in front of her captors. The shogun contemplated the fact of having her killed or exiled. A warrior named Asari Yoichi Yoshitō was, however, impressed by her bravery and asked to be allowed to marry her. His request was granted and Hangaku became his wife. 

She thus went to live to her husband’s homeland and gave birth to a child. Hangaku also accompanied him on his trips to Akita Prefecture.

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References:

A. Curtis, “Story of the Skillful Archer named Hangaku Gozen”

Amdur Ellis, Old School: Essays on Japanese Martial Traditions

Fukumoto Hideko, Femmes et samouraïs

(Tomoe Gozen, by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi)

Tomoe, Yamabuki and Aoi - Lady samurais 

Tomoe Gozen (12th-13th century) is probably the most famous Japanese warrior woman. “Gozen” wasn’t her surname, but a title that could be used for a lady of a distinguished family. Said title isn’t used in the chronicles, but it seems that it had become customary to address Tomoe this way by the 15th century. It was likely attributed to her due to a lineage of female performers specialized in telling Tomoe’s story, who used the title “Gozen” and took the name “Tomoe” to honor her memory. 

Though Tomoe’s story probably has a factual basis, separating fact from fiction remains difficult. What’s known comes from oral traditions that began to be conveyed in written form at the end of the 13th century. Different versions thus exist. She was likely born around 1157 and possibly died in 1247, though the latter remains uncertain. 

In the most commonly accepted version, Tomoe’s father was a warrior named Nakahara Kaneto and she had two brothers: Imai Kanehira and Higuchi Kanemitsu. Her mother was the wet nurse of Minamoto no Yoshinaka , who was fostered in their family in Kiso Valley. The relationship between Tomoe and Yoshinaka is unclear. Only one version of her story tells that she was his concubine while the others are silent. It’s thus possible for such elements to be romantic embellishments. Since young women from samurai families were taught the fighting arts, this is probably how Tomoe acquired her military skills.

Tomoe showed her bravery during the Genpei war, a civil war who opposed the Minamoto clan to the Taira. An interesting point is that the different sources give a coherent picture of Tomoe’s military career. The most well-known account of her story, the Tale of the Heike, gives the following description of Tomoe:

“Tomoe was especially beautiful, with white skin, long hair, and charming features. She was also a remarkably strong archer, and as a swordswoman she was a warrior worth a thousand, ready to confront a demon or god, mounted or on foot. She handled unbroken horses with superb skill; she rode unscathed down perilous descents. Whenever a battle was imminent, Yoshinaka sent her out as his first captain, equipped with strong armor, an oversized sword, and a mighty bow; and she performed more deeds of valor than any of his other warriors.”

She first fought during the battle of Yokotagawara in 1181 and killed seven enemy cavalrymen. She then led 1,000 men during the battle of Kurikara in 1183, making her one of Yoshinaka’s main commanders. Some tellings of the battle credit her with creating the tactic that made victory possible. She reportedly had torches attached to the horns of bulls while some of her soldiers were beating the drums. The confusion caused the enemy’s horses to panic and it is said that 70,000 Taira soldiers perished that day. Though this number is certainly exaggerated, the victory was certainly a decisive one. 

Yoshinaka then took Kyoto, at that time Japan’s capital, in July in 1183 after the Taira had fled the city. He made himself extremely unpopular, executing his opponents, while his troops were raping and plundering. In January 1184, the cloistered emperor Go-Shirakawa asked Minamoto no Yoritomo, Yoshinaka’s cousin, to expel him from the city. Since Yoritomo and Yoshinaka were rivals, Yoritomo accepted.

Yoshinaka thus had to flee. Tomoe followed him as his “first commander” and personal bodyguard. During the battle of Uchide no Hama, Yoshinaka’s 300 cavalrymen faced 6,000 enemy soldiers. Tomoe was one of the few survivors and managed to escape capture. She then fought a last time at Awazu in February 1184. In the Tale of the Heike, Yoshinaka orders her to leave and, humiliated, she confronts and beheads a particularly strong warrior in order to show her might one last time.

All the versions of her story have Yoshinaka tell that he didn’t want to die alongside a woman. Though Tomoe’s warrior pride was wounded, she had no choice, but to obey. She took off her armor and left the battlefield. Yoshinaka died a humiliating death, killed as he tried to flee. What happened to her afterward is the subject of many stories. One says that she was captured and brought in front of Yoritomo. A warrior named Wada Yoshimori fell in love with her and married her to have her spared. She gave birth to a son a became a nun after his death. This is, however, unlikely. 

Numerous towns and provinces claim to be the place where Tomoe spent the rest of her life. A study showed the existence of several Buddhist nuns named Tomoe in different locations, but none of them has been proved to be the warrior woman. At tomb attributed to her can be seen in Gichû-ji temple, next to Yoshinaka’s grave. It is said that Tomoe lived in this temple and that her ghost can be seen haunting its courtyard. What is certain, however, is that many tales circulated about Tomoe, certainly conveyed by itinerant performers, which led to this blend of facts and legends.

Last, but not least, Tomoe isn’t the only female warrior mentioned in tellings of the Genpei war. The Tale of the Heike states that Yoshinaka went to war with two women: Tomoe and Yamabuki. Yamabuki had, however, fallen sick and had to be left in Kyoto. No mention is made of Yamabuki in the other main version, the Genpei-seisui-ki, who states that Yoshinaka had another female commander named Aoi and that she died during the battle of Kurikara. 

The exact truth can’t be known, but local traditions attached to both Yamabuki and Aoi exist. For instance, it’s possible to visit in Kiso valley the house where Yamabuki reportedly lived while commemorative steles have been erected to Tomoe and Aoi on the site of Kurikara. Those names nonetheless suggest that Tomoe’s story can be seen as part of a bigger picture. Since archeological discoveries may suggest that women were involved in armies on a larger scale than expected, it seems that Tomoe wasn’t perhaps a lone exception.

Tomoe’s story has inspired noh and kabuki plays. A geiko dressed as her appears every year during Kyoto’s festival of the ages.

Bibliography:

Brown Steven T., Theatricalities of power, the cultural politics of noh

Doak Kevin M., “Tomoe Gozen”, in: Pennington Reina (dir.), Amazons to fighter pilots,Biographical dictionary of military women vol.2

McCullough Helen Craig (trad.), The tale of the Heike

Oyler Elizabeth, “The woman warrior Tomoe in medieval and early modern Japanese nō plays”,in: Wade Mara R. (dir.), Gender matters: discourses of violence in early modern literature and the arts

Oyler Elizabeth, “The battle of Tonamiyama in Bangai nō”, in: Oyler Elizabeth, Watson Michael (dir.), Like clouds and mists: Studies and translations of nō plays from the Genpei war

Scott Wilson William, Walking the kiso road, a modern day exploration of old Japan

Watson Michael, “Kurikara Otoshi (The fall from Kurikara): Introduction”, in: Oyler Elizabeth, Watson Michael (dir.), Like clouds and mists: Studies and translations of nō plays from the Genpei war