Marine News from MaritimeManual.com

The earth is known as the ‘blue planet’ because of its blue appearance from space. This blue color obviously comes from the oceans on earth which comprise nearly 70% of the total surface of the planet. Oceans are an important field of research as they comprise of currents, volcanoes, mountains, tectonic plates, shallow waters, deep trenches and what not. This article discusses the deepest parts of the ocean also known as ocean trenches on the surface of the earth, the tectonic plates that were responsible for their creation and how they affect the regions nearby due to the many seismic activities that take place in them.

List of deepest parts of the ocean

The following are the ten deepest parts in the oceans of the earth.

1. Mariana Trench

The Mariana Trench, situated in the western part of the Pacific Ocean, is considered to be the deepest point on the Earth. It would actually be more precise to say that the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench is the deepest point on the surface of the Earth.

Mariana Trench Location

It is located at a distance of about 200 km east of the Mariana Islands.

On average, the Mariana Trench is 69 km in width and 2,550 km in length. Its maximum depth has been measured at 11,034 m in the Challenger Deep, though some studies have reported it to be 10,910 m deep.

Cross-section of Mariana Trench

It is interesting to note that Mt. Everest, the tallest peak on Earth, if made to stand in the deepest part of the Mariana Trench would still be covered with more than a mile of water.

The pressure at the bottom of the trench is about 1,086 bars. This value is more than a thousand times larger than the standard atmospheric pressure at the sea level.

The convergence of the oceanic plates of the lithosphere has caused the deep holes in the Mariana Trench. A trough was formed from the flexure at the line of contact of the colliding planes. This was caused by one of the plains descend into the mantle. The high pressure at the seabed caused the density of the water at the bottom of the Mariana Trench to rise by 4.96%.

At the bottom of the trench, the temperature is quite constant, only ranging from about 1 degree Celsius to 4 degrees Celsius.

Several studies across the world report that microbial life forms exist within the trench.

2. Tonga Trench

Tonga Trench

The Tonga Trench is known to be the second deepest natural trench on the earth. It is also the deepest natural trench in the Southern Hemisphere. It is located in the south-western part of the Pacific Ocean at the Kermadec Tonga Subduction Zone’s northern end.

The Kermadec Ridge is the region between the Lau back-arc basin and the Tonga Trench. Its movement is independent of the Australian and Pacific plates. The region is divided into several smaller plates like Kermadec, Tonga or Niuafo’ou. The plate called Tonga faces the Tonga Trench.

It is 10,882 m below sea level and its sediments are said to be the shelter for a community of roundworms.

It stretches at a distance of 2,500 km from New Zealand’s North Island, north-east to the island of Tonga. The deepest point in the trench is known as the Horizon Deep which as mentioned before is the deepest point on earth after the Challenge Deep. Horizon Deep is named after the research vessel called ‘Horizon’. The crew members of the ship discovered the deep in December 1952.

This trench experiences the fastest tectonic plate velocity on the earth. This velocity is being subducted towards the west direction in the trench. According to researchers, the large volcanoes formed in the Japan Trench, as well as the Mariana Trench, have been caused by these plate movements.

3. Philippine Trench

Philippine Trench

The Philippine Trench is a submarine trench that is a narrow but long trench, lying in the east of the Philippine coast, in the western Pacific Ocean. It is also known as the Mindanao Trench, Mindanao deep of Philippine Deep. Until 1970, it was thought to be the deepest point of the earth.

The length of the trench is approximately 1,329 km and its width about 30 km. It stretches from the center of the Luzon island of the Philippines to its southeast towards the north of the Maluku, Halmahera in Indonesia.

The deepest point of the trench is called the Galathea Deep which is located at a depth of 10,540 meters under the sea. This makes it the third deepest point on the entire earth.

The trench was formed as a result of a collision between the Eurasian Plate and the smaller Philippine plate about 8.9 million years ago.

Many seismic activities have been recorded in this region, most of which have had a magnitude of more than 7.2 on the Richter Scale. The most recent of these earthquakes took place in 2012. It had a magnitude of 7.6.  One of the largest recorded magnitudes of earthquakes in the region was 8.2 which was of an earthquake that took place in 1924 and is considered among the largest in history.

Other notable trenches located in the Philippine Sea are the Sulu Trench, the Manila Trench, the East Luzon trench, the Negros Trench and the Cotabato trench.

4. Kuril-Kamchatka Trench

Kuril-Kamchatka Trench

The Kuril-Kamchatka Trench is a trench lying in the north-western part of the Pacific Ocean. It is also called the Kuril Trench.

It is located in the southwest of the clast of Kamchatka paralleling the Kuril Island chain till the Japan Trench lying in the east of Hokkaido. It extends from a part of the ocean in Russia called the Commander Islands to its southwest, near the Japan trench.

The tectonic plate called the Pacific plate is still subducting beneath the Okhotsk Plate at the very region of the Kurile-Kamchatka Plate.

It has a depth of 10,500 m below the sea level and is regarded as the fourth deepest point on the entire planet earth. It was formed as a result of subduction millions of years ago. It is believed that the same subduction was responsible for forming the Kuril and the Kamchatka arcs. The region experiences very high volcanism. It has caused many disastrous earthquakes in history which have had magnitudes as high as 9.0 on the Richter Scale, most of them taking place in the region of Kamchatka itself.

The most recent one of these earthquakes took place on 18 July 2017 in Kamchatka. It had a magnitude of 7.8.

5. Kermadec Trench

Kermadec Trench

The Kermadec Trench is an oceanic trench lying in the southern part of the Pacific Ocean. It stretches from around 1,000 km between the Louisville Seamount Chain in the North and the Hikurangi Plateau in the South. The Louisville Seamount Chain and the Hikurangi Plateau both lie at the southeast of the North Island in New Zealand. It is regarded as the fifth deepest point on the planet.

The trench has a maximum depth of 10,047 m, and a length of nearly 2000 km.

It was formed due to the subduction of the Pacific plate under the Indo-Australian Plate. It is was formed as a result of the same subduction that is continued by the Tonga Plate towards the north.

The trench happens to be home to various different types of species including an amphipod that is one of the largest in the world. They are approximately 34 cm long and are found at the bottom of the trench. In addition to this, different other aquatic species like the Hadal Snailfish, the Notoliparis kermadecensis and a species of pearlfish have been seen here.

A few years ago, an unmanned submarine was sent to conduct explorations in the Kermadec trench. Unfortunately, it could not withstand the extreme pressure at 9,990 meters depth and imploded. Various news channels covered it.

6. Izu-Ogasawara Trench

Izu-Ogasawara Trench

The Izu-Ogasawara Trench is an oceanic trench which is located in the western part of the Pacific Ocean. It is also known as the Izu-Bonin Trench. It stretches from Japan to the northern section of the Mariana Trench. It is also an extension of the Japan Trench which comes next in our list.

It consists of two trenches namely the Izu Trench at the north and the Bonin Trench at the south. The Bonin Trench lies at the west of the Ogasawara Plateau. The trench has hence named the way it is. It is one of the deepest trenches on the entire planet.

This trench too, like most of the deepest trenches in the world, experiences high tectonic plate activity. In this region, the Pacific plate is subducting beneath the Philippine Sea Plate resulting in the creation of the islands of Izu and Bonin lying on the Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc system which is more than 2,800 m in length.

At its deepest point, the trench lies 9,780 m under the sea making it the sixth deepest place on earth.

7. Japan Trench

Japan Trench

The Japan Trench is an oceanic trench lying in the Northern Pacific Ocean in the Pacific Ring of Fire. It is located at the northeast of Japan. The Japan Trench stretches from the Kuril Islands to the Bonin Islands and is also an extended portion of the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench and the Izu-Ogasawara Trench to the north and south respectively.

At its deepest point, the trench lies at 9000 m under the sea, making it one of the deepest trenches on the entire planet.

This trench was created as a result of the subduction of the oceanic Plateau plate beneath the continental Okhotsk plane. The deep trench was created due to the bending of the plate which was going down. The ongoing subduction of the plates is one of the primary reasons for the occurrences of tsunamis on the island of Japan. It experiences great seismic activities, causing frequent earthquakes of large magnitudes.

The most recent of these earthquakes took place on 11 March 2011 in Japan. It has a magnitude of about 7.9 on the Richter Scale.

8. Puerto Rico Trench

Puerto Rico Trench

The Puerto Rico Trench is an oceanic trench located in the Atlantic Ocean. It is actually located at the boundary of or rather between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The Puerto Rico Trench is the 8th deepest point on the surface of the earth. This trench lies at a depth of 8640 m with Milwaukee Deep as its deepest point. It is also the deepest point on the Earth which does not lie in the Pacific Ocean.

The location of the trench is at the boundary of two plates namely the Caribbean Plate and the North American Plate. The Caribbean Plate is moving towards the east while the North American Plate is moving towards the west, hence forming a subduction zone where the Caribbean Plate is obliquely subducting the North American Plate. This explains the presence of several active volcanoes in the southeastern part of the Caribbean Sea. The islands in this region experience very strong volcanic activities.

The places like Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, United States Virgin Islands, etc. are constantly at risk of getting struck by earthquakes and tsunamis of high magnitudes.

It stretches for a length of 800 km. This trench accounts for many of the tsunamis and earthquakes of this region. In 1964, the French bathyscaphe Archimedes first tried to explore the sea-floor. Later in 2012, a robotic vehicle was sent to the trench to do research on the characteristics of the trench. Since then several expeditions have been carried out in an attempt to map the region.

9. South Sandwich Trench

South Sandwich Trench

The South Sandwich Trench is an oceanic trench lying in the Atlantic Ocean. Some of the parts of the trench also lie in the Southern Ocean as it stretches till far. In fact, the trench contains the deepest point in the Southern Ocean which lies 7,235 m under the sea.

The South Sandwich Trench is one of the deepest trenches in the Atlantic Ocean, second only to the Puerto Rico Trench and is also the 9th deepest point on the surface of the earth. It is located 100 m to the east of the South Sandwich Islands and is hence named after them.

The deepest point of the trench is called the Meteor Deep and it is at a depth of 8,420 m under the sea. Meteor Deep lies 120 km off the northeast of the Zavodovski Island. The trench is 965 km in length.

The subduction of the South American Plate’s southernmost portion under the small South Sandwich Plate resulted in this trench. The South Sandwich trench also happens to be linked to an active volcanic arc.

10. Peru–Chile Trench

Peru–Chile Trench

The Peru-Chile trench is an oceanic trench that lies in the Eastern part of the Pacific Ocean. It is located around 160 km off the coast of Peru and Chile. It is also known as the Atacama Trench.

The deepest point of the trench is called the Richards Deep which is 8,065 m deep making it the tenth deepest point on the surface of the earth.

The trench has a length of nearly 5,900 km and a width of 64 km.

The convergence of the boundary between the subducting Nazca and the South American plates led to the formation of the Atacama Trench.

The trench is also associated with a lot of earthquakes which are a result of the subduction of the Nazca Plate below the South American Plate. In fact, one of the largest earthquakes ever recorded on earth took place in this region and it has a magnitude of 9.5 on the Richter scale. The most recent earthquake in this region took place Illapel in 2015 and it had a magnitude of 7.0.

We have discussed the 10 deepest trenches in the earth’s oceans. However, these are not the only existing deep trenches. There are hundreds of them. Following are some more notable ocean trenches on the surface of the Earth:

11. The Diamantina Trench

The Diamantina Trench

When Australia and Antarctica drifted apart, fracture zones in the earth’s crust were created. The Diamantina Trench is one of these fractures. It lies off the southwestern tip of the continent of Australia. With a maximum depth of nearly 8,050 m, it is the eleventh deepest trench on the surface of the earth. It is also one of the deepest points of the Indian Ocean. The peak of Mount Everest would form an island of a maximum elevation of 900 m if its base was at the same depth.

12. Cayman Trough

Cayman Trough

The Cayman Trough or the Cayman Trench is an oceanic trench lying on the floor of the western part of the Caribbean Sea. It lies between the islands of Jamaica and the Cayman Islands after which it has been named. With a maximum depth of 7,686 m, it is one of the deepest points on the surface of the earth. It is the deepest point of the Caribbean Sea. It also forms a part of the tectonic boundary lying between the regions of the Caribbean Plate and the North American Plate.

13. Yap Trench

Yap Trench

The Yap Trench is an oceanic trench lying in the western Pacific Ocean near the Yap Islands. It lies between the Palau Islands and the Mariana Trench. It is a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. It has a length of 650 km. At its deepest point, it is 8,527 m deep, making it one of the deepest points on earth. It is a part of the chain of trenches between the southwestern edge of the Bering Sea and the southern tip of the Philippine Trench.

14. Middle America Trench

Middle America Trench

The Middle America Trench is an oceanic trench and a subduction zone lying off the coast of middle America in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean. It stretches from central Mexico to Costa Rica. The length of this trench is 2,750 km while its depth is 6,669 m at its deepest point. This makes it one of the deepest parts of the earth’s crust. It is the eighteenth deepest trench in the world. This region is prone to many earthquakes having experienced several large ones in the past decades.

15. Sunda Trench

Sunda Trench

The Sunda Trench or the Java Trench is an oceanic trench lying near Sumatra in the Indian Ocean. It is formed at the place where the subduction of the Australian-Capricorn Plate under a part of the Eurasian Plate takes place. The length of the trench is 3,200 km while its depth is 7,725 m. It is one of the deepest points of the Indian Ocean and the earth’s crust. This trench is a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire as well as the ring of oceanic trenches lying around the north Australian Plate. This region is prone to tsunamis and a tsunami warning system has also been established here.

Also read: Top 12 Most Famous Sunken Ships

A submarine is a vessel that is capable of operating underwater independently. Most of the time it is used by the government of different countries for national protection and during wartime. Submarines are some of the rarest and the most fascinating marine vessels in the world. Unlike other ships like yachts, submarines are not very commonly privately owned. Exceptional people who have their personal submarines are without a doubt neighbor’s envy. Such people include businessmen, Marine sports enthusiasts or socialites.

Top Personal Submarines

This article lists some interesting models of submarines built by engineering companies and owned by private individuals.

1) Phoenix 1000

Phoenix 1000 Luxury Personal Submarine

The Phoenix 1000 is one of the largest and the most expensive personal submarines ever built. It is 65 meters long and has an area of 5000 square feet. It consists of 10 bedrooms, a wine cellar, James, a fully equipped kitchen, jacuzzi, and several viewing areas. The cost of the submarine is 78 million dollars.

2) Necker Nymph

Necker Nymph

The Necker Nymph is a submarine owned by multi-millionaire Richard Branson, the founder of the Virgin Aquatic. It is 4.6 meters in length and has a beam of 3 meters. it can go up to 40 meters underwater and carry 3 passengers and one crew member. It is based in the British Virgin Islands at the Virgin Limited Edition resort. It can offer a speed of up to 6 knots. The estimated cost of the submarine is 415,000 pounds.

3) The SportSub Collection

The SportSub Collection is a collection of a number of private submarines is coming with technical highlights and uniqueness. The prices of these submarines can range from $30,000 25 million dollars. They usually focus on the experience, safety, usability, and weight of the submarines.

4) Triton Personal Submarines

Triton Personal Submarines https://ift.tt/2LiMFB4

Triton Personal Submarines is a brand that has its own fleet of personalized submarines for the purposes of both technological empowerment and underwater recreation. The submarines can come with varying diving abilities, capacities and prices.

5) VAS Submarine

VAS personal Submarine

The VAS Submarine is one of the most expensive and most luxurious personal submarines in the world. We can provide a maximum speed of 6 knots and has the capacity to hold 5 passengers. It contains several other recreational features and is equipped with many Hi-Tech instruments to improve its operational ability.

6) EGO Compact

The EGO Compact is another brand name. It consists of several models of different personal submarines each of which gives the user experience of viewing the different species of flora and fauna of the oceans.

7) The Killer Whale Submarine

The Killer Whale Submarine represents the appearance of a killer whale as its name suggests. The shape of the submarine allows it to maneuver in a manner similar to that of a killer whale in its habitat. At a price of a hundred thousand dollars, this is also one of the more expensive personal submarines in the world.

8) Spy Master

Spy Master is a small personal submarine that can accommodate only one person. It can also be called a mini-submarine and resembles the appearance of a scooter. It can allow the passenger to go down up to 12 meters deep. It runs on a battery that can last for about 60 to 80 minutes for a single trip. It cost about 12,000 pounds.

9) U-boat Submarines

U-boat Submarine

U-boat Submarines is the name of a brand that features a number of commendable personal submarines. Each of these submarines can go at least 100 meters deep into the water and are designed to provide maximum comfort, an uninterrupted view of the oceans and complete safety to the passengers.

10) Seabreacher X

Seabreacher X personal submarine

The Seabreacher X is one of the most technologically advanced marine vessels ever built. It has been equipped with a high-powered engine system so as to provide it with better propulsion while it is underwater. It has a length of about 5 meters and a beam of 1 meter. The price of the submarine depends on the model on sale.

11) Scubster

A scubster is a small-sized submarine, specifically built for the purpose of marine research and related activities. It is compact and fast, providing a speed of 8 knots. It works on battery and is designed for all features in a practical manner.

12) DeepFlight Super Falcon

FOURSEASONS_DEEPFLIGHT_Short Version_H264 from Adam Wright on Vimeo.

A DeepFlight Super Falcon is a submarine with excellent underwater operational abilities. It was developed by Graham Hawkes. It provides with a speed of about 6 knots and is best known for the oceanic depths that it can go up to.

13) Neyk Submarine

Neyk Submarine

Neyk Submarine is the most recent model from the Dutch builder, Ocean Submarine. It has a capacity to occupy 20 passengers, can dive up to 500 meters beneath the oceans and provides excellent speed of 15 knots.

14) Seamagine Aurora-5

This is another highly advanced submarines with an ability to dive as deep as 1000 meters. It can occupy 4 passengers and a pilot. It costs about 3.2 million dollars.

15) Deepflight Dragon

This submarine is quite easy to pilot. It is also safe to use. It resembles a race car in appearance and runs on battery. It can dive up to 400 m deep. It is silent and has zero power emissions.

Also read: More expensive yacht

Ocean pollution has become a serious problem confronting the world. It cannot be ignored for long. We know that oceans cover most of the surface of our planet. In fact, more than 70% of the entire Earth’s surface is covered by some kind of a water body. Oceans and other water bodies are very important for us as they provide us with many natural resources like salt and other important minerals.

They also provide us with energy resources like oil, gas and some precious metals. They play an essential role in the regulation of temperatures and climate. Oceans are responsible for more than 70% of the oxygen on earth because they contain a microscopic plant called the phytoplankton.

Oceans are also an important source of food for people. Many people on earth depend on fish for proteins. Several sea plants and algae are also used to cook food.

Oceans are the natural habitat of millions of species of plants and animals. Pollution of the ocean affects them the most. Also, more than 60% of the human population lives on the coastline and depends directly on oceans for their livelihood.

Oceans also provide us with an extremely important means of transport that is ships and other vessels. The fact that water transport is one of the most economical in the world makes oceans even more crucial an indispensable for us. The marine industry is also one of the biggest employers in the world employing millions of people.

Oceans also hold military strategic and fundamental political importance.

Despite being aware of all of this we can find today’s seas and oceans being polluted and contaminated because of human activities over the past few decades, much like most of the other natural resources on the planet. Today, many toxic chemicals are present in the oceans which are harmful to all living beings on Earth. Many human activities are causing damage to oceans and marine biodiversity.

This article discusses some of the major causes of ocean pollution, how it is affecting our planet and why it is so important to understand the severity of our activities.

Causes of Ocean Pollution

1) Oil Industry

Skimming Oil after an Oil Spill pic: https://ift.tt/1embLMv

The oil industry is one of the most catastrophic causes of ocean pollution, the major reason for this being oil spills. Oil spills threaten the survival of marine life by cutting down their oxygen supply and contaminating their habitat. Even the smallest of all spells are known to have caused great damage to not only fish and aquatic mammals but also birds and sea otters. Oil spills are caused by offshore drilling rigs and boat and ship leakages.

It takes a lot of time and resources to remove oil from oceans and reduce the damage caused by just one oil spill. Still, the discharged oil cannot be completely cleaned up and continues to pollute the oceans for several years.

2) Garbage Dumping

Garbage Dumping

A lot of garbage and other waste materials are dumped in the ocean by factories, industries, ships, and tankers every year. This garbage usually contains toxic materials and chemicals like mercury or DDT. All these chemicals can cause great damage to ocean life as well as human life due to eutrophication or biomagnification. Inland pollution also contributes to ocean pollution significantly.

Much of the pollutants in the ocean are released into the water from coastlines. These can include trash, bits, and pieces of plastics and cans, etc which slowly move into the ocean and then later can take hundreds of years to decompose. Small pieces of garbage can also be accidentally ingested by marine animals like turtles or dolphins which can result in their deaths over time.

3) Ocean Mining

Mining activities taking place in the deep oceans is also a major cause of ocean pollution. The ocean floor is drilled and dug for the extraction of minerals and metal ores such as silver, gold, zinc, aluminum, etc. Mining processes unknown to generate scores of sulfide deposits in the water which results in the destruction of oceans and coastal regions.

These also increase the toxicity levels in the oceans in the mining areas. Mining can also lead to leakages and oil spills which can have further devastating impacts on the environment.

4) Sewage

Sewage Dumping In Sea

Sewage or wastewater and its component excrements that are transported in the sewer system are finally released in the ocean waters. This wastewater consists of human or animal waste and dirty or used water. Some of the substances can be very harmful and cause serious health problems to the marine organisms if consumed. Sewage water is hardly ever treated before being released into water bodies. This results in the pollution of not just oceans or seas but also other water bodies like rivers or lakes.

5) Noise Pollution

It may be surprising to know that noise pollution is also one of the biggest threats to marine life. Rainy season noise pollution and the sea because of the ocean traffic as well as the sound from sonar devices and ocean mining. Also, sound waves travel faster in the deep sea than in air.

Many sea creatures use sound communication to meet, navigate and find food. Hence the increasing human-generated noise pollution in the oceans is are affecting the migration and reproduction patterns of many marine species like whales and dolphins.

6) Nuclear Waste

Nuclear waste is the waste generated by industrial, scientific and medical activities that use radioactive material. The main culprits of nuclear pollution in the oceans are the industries that produce nuclear waste such as power stations, reprocessing plants, and the military.

The food chain of marine animals is affected when the radiation from nuclear waste enters it through planktons and kelps. Marine animals also become contaminated when they consume it.

7) Thermal Pollution

Thermal pollution is caused when the water quality is lowered because of activities that change the water temperature. Some of the major causes of thermal pollution are manufacturing companies and power plants which release hot water into water bodies leading to a change in temperature of the ocean.

If the temperature of the ocean is suddenly changed it leads to a reduction in the oxygen supply and affects the entire ecosystem. Aquatic animals are not adapted to such high temperatures and may get affected or even killed by thermal shock.

8) Acid Rain

Acid rain is caused when harmful substances like nitrogen oxide, are released into the atmosphere and react with water or other substances in the air and form nitric acid or sulphuric acid. This may be caused by any kind of pollution but when these chemicals find their way into marine waters, they can severely affect the life of sea creatures and increase the acidity of ocean water by decreasing the pH value.

Effects

Ocean pollution has led to many adverse effects on marine life as well as human life. The release of toxic waste and oceans because of activities like oil spills, the release of wastewater, dumping of waste, etc affects the life of sea creatures drastically. Other sea creatures many birds that depend on fish for their food are also affected. If these sea animals are consumed by humans, they can also cause several diseases.

When there is an oil spin the supply of oxygen in that region-wise cut off of which affects the marine life in that area. Oil also prevents sunlight from reaching plants and affects the process of photosynthesis. This can even disrupt the cycle of coral reefs.

When garbage dumped in the ocean, most of it does not get decomposed for several years and causes degradation of oxygen. The dropping of oxygen levels can affect the survival of animals like whales, dolphins, penguins, turtles, sharks, etc. over the course of time.

Poisonous chemicals, pesticides, and industrial and agricultural waste also pose a threat to marine life. They can get accumulated in the fatty tissues of animals which can lead to the damage of their reproductive systems. This, in turn, puts that species on the verge of being endangered. the chemicals which are released into rivers eventually come down into the oceans. They are insoluble in the ocean waters and hence, sink at the bottom of the ocean. Animals at the bottom of the food chain may eat these hazardous chemicals. The effect of these chemicals can multiply as the food chain progresses and cause biomagnification which may also affect human beings.

Finally, all of these causes of ocean pollution affect human beings as humans consume fish and other sea animals which may have been contaminated. Toxic substances and chemicals released into the oceans can hence cause long-term health problems and defects for human beings.

Natural resources are a gift to us. We should realize that human beings are not the only creatures living on the planet and that their activities can be injurious to other species as well. Our earth is getting more and more polluted by the minute and it is high time we took necessary actions at a personal as well as industrial level in order to save it because all of these will eventually cause the destruction of the entire planet including humans.

Underwater photography is one of the most fascinating career options. If you have a passion for both photography and ocean then this is a field that is not only lucrative but also satisfying. Let’s know more about a career as an underwater photographer.

What is photography?

Photography is defined as the art of capturing light in the form of images with the help of a camera. The subjects of these images can be anything from everyday objects to nature or even stars and galaxies, depending on the equipment used and the purpose of the photograph. There are several branches of photography such as wildlife photography, food photography, fashion photography, photojournalism, etc. In this article, we will be discussing a very specific branch of photography which is underwater photography, what it is, the job and career options available in it and the kind of salary one can expect.

What is underwater photography?

Underwater photography is a branch of photography that involves the capturing of pictures underwater as the name suggests. The subjects of these pictures may include marine creatures, marine plants, and animals, coral reefs underwater scenarios like sunken ships, the effect of sunlight underwater, etc.

Underwater photography may also include shooting videos underwater.

What are the requirements and skills?

The first and the most important requirement to become an underwater photographer is to be a qualified SCUBA diver. It is a prerequisite for entering this field as all of the work is done underwater and photographers may need to spend long periods of time underwater at a stretch. A good place to train as a diver may be the Professional Association of Diving Instructors or PADI. A course in diving and snorkeling could last for 3 to 4 days. However, the course must be done through an accredited organization. In such courses, the candidates are taught the basics and proper scuba technique safety procedures.

Another obvious requirement is the skill of photography. Hence, it is better to pursue a degree in photography. Now a day, many colleges and universities offer diploma and degree courses in photography. This is necessary, not only for the skills in photography but also for the knowledge of knowing how to use different cameras and equipment. Having a degree with a marine background is also appreciated but not compulsory.

Listed below are some of the most reputed colleges providing courses in photography.

School of the Art Institute of Chicago

Yale University – School of Art

Rochester Institute of Technology – College of Imaging Arts & Sciences

University of Arizona – College of Fine Arts – Photography Division

Washington University in St. Louis – Sam Fox School of Design & Visual Arts

Tisch School of the Arts (NYU)

Delhi School of Photography, New Delhi

National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad

Jawaharlal Nehru Architecture and Fine Arts University, Hyderabad

Vevey School of Photography, Switzerland

There are very few institutions and schools that offer courses specifically for underwater photography. Most of it is about how to select and handle the equipment, create lighting in the circumstances underwater and how to choose the subject for your photograph. These courses are again or not compulsory but appreciated.

Other than all this, the aspirant must be physically fit and willing to travel a lot and spend long hours underwater for his or her projects. There are many pressure changes underwater and hence the divers must be in good health in order to withstand them.

The photographer should have a good sense of lighting and color contrasts, especially in such unusual situations and that too, naturally.

What Next?

Underwater photography is one of the most unique career options in the world. To be successful in this career, it is important to have more following and exposure. Here, social media platforms like Instagram or blogs can come in handy. And aspirant must also have an impressive, online portfolio in order to attract potential clients. Some companies do higher underwater photographers. However, most people in this field choose to be freelancers and work for magazines or channels like National Geographic or Discovery Channel.

It is always advised to take photography courses and learn how to use a camera and click photographs before taking a scuba diving course. This would make the journey of an underwater photographer smoother as one of the two main requirements is easily fulfilled beforehand.

It is after getting a scuba diving certification that an underwater photographer can start looking for projects.

The equipment for underwater photography is different from normal photography as the camera is needed to be taken underwater. It is most advisable to practice photography with a normal DSLR from Canon or Nikon and learn about the different aspects of photography, white balance, exposure and generally how to operate a camera.

Cameras that are used for underwater photography may be sealed in watertight plastic containers. Sometimes special flashes may also be used when taking photographs. The equipment must be properly checked before diving so that it doesn’t get damaged by leaking.

Underwater photographers may also choose their specialties like clicking pictures of animals like fish or dolphins, underwater vegetation, pictures of underwater scenarios such as sunken ships or even fashion photography underwater which is an upcoming field.

In the beginning, one may be paid much less than expected or maybe not even be paid at all. in such situations, it is always better to invest in the future by selling your photos at low cost to smaller publications in hopes of being discovered by major ones. It is also always better to get more and more experience in order to become successful and be recognized in this business. Some corporations may also employ underwater photographers.

However, there is another option available than freelancing or joining a company. One can always start their own underwater photography business by taking up projects based on an individualistic commission basis.

Underwater photography is a rough field and it is not very easy to find jobs here. You have to be brilliant in your profession in order to make a mark in the industry. Thus, perfection is the only key and perfection can only be achieved with a great amount of practice.

The following are some books that can give you tips and valuable insights about learning and perfecting the art of underwater photography.

Advanced Underwater Photography: Techniques for Digital Photographers by Larry Gates

Winning Images with Any Underwater Camera: The essential guide to creating engaging photos by Paul Colley

Underwater Photography Masterclass by Alex Mustard

Glass and Water: The Essential Guide to Freediving for Underwater Photography by Mark Harris

Underwater Photography: Art and Techniques by Nick Robertson-Brown ARPS

The Beginner’s Guide to Underwater Digital Photography by Larry Gates

Water Light Time by David Doubilet

Underwater Photography: A Pictorial Guide to Shooting Great Pictures by Larry Gates

The Underwater Photographer by Martin Edge

Underwater Photography by Tobias Friedrich

The Underwater Photographer’s Guide: Practical tips on how to shoot like the pros by Richard Carey

700 Sharks into the Dark by Laurent Ballesta

Jim Church’s Essential Guide to Composition by Jim Church

Howard Hall’s Guide to Successful Underwater Photography by Howard Hall

Read more: Learn more about lucrative marine careers

Equipment required for underwater photography

Underwater photography may come across as quite expensive when it comes to equipment such as cameras and accessories. Standard cameras alone main cost more than a thousand dollars excluding the accessories. The following are some of the basic equipment required in an underwater photography kit.

Camera

Macro + wide-angle lens

Flat port + dome port and Dome port cover, dome port share

Port extension, zoom gear, and dioptre (if it is required) for the WA lens

Lens cleaning kit

A couple of memory cards

Focus light + focus light accessories

Underwater Casing

Colour Correcting Filters

Underwater Flash/Strobes

Sync Cords & Fibre Optic Cables

Rechargeable Batteries

The most important piece of equipment is the camera. The following are some of the best cameras for underwater photography.

Sony RX100 III

Canon S120

Canon EOS MARK III 5D

Panasonic LX100

Olympus MARK II

Sony A711

Sony NEX A6000

GoPro HERO 6

Canon G7X

Nikon D810

Canon A570

Canon G9

Nikon D90

Nikon D300

Nikon D300s

What is the pay like for an underwater photographer?

Underwater photography is not the most fruitful career when it comes to salaries. On average, the salary of an ordinary underwater photographer is about 32,000 dollars per year. Some professionals or experts may earn up to 60,000 dollars a year. The job growth until 2024 is predicted to be just about 3% for all photographers.

All in all, it can be said that underwater photography is a career for people driven by passion. It is one of the best careers for those who seek adventure in life. The salary may not be the highest, but it certainly is one of the most unique careers that one can opt for. Any aspiring photographer should at least once try to explore this amazing field because it opens doors to a world that is beyond the sight of ordinary people.

A Freight Forwarder, also known as, a Non-Vessel Operating Common Carrier (NVOCC) is a person or company that looks into all the aspects of transporting a shipment from its manufacturer till its customer/final destination.

A freight forwarder is also known by names such as forwarder or forwarding agent.

Freight forwarding involves close coordination and shipment of goods from one place to another. It could either involve one carrier or multiple carriers. The mode of transportation could be roads, sea, air or railways.

Freight forwarding dates to as early as 1836 when Thomas Meadows and Company Ltd., England was established to cater to the intermediary needs of shipping goods.

Basically, freight forwarders handle all the logistics which includes a wide range of services like documentation, risk management, organization of shipping goods through the most reliable and cost-effective medium of transport.

Usually, to move goods from one point to another involves multiple agencies, documentation, tracking, storage, charges, insurance and billing. To make all this seamless, a freight forwarder is engaged.

In this article, we are going to cover all the details in length concerning freight forwarding and the paramount importance it holds in international and domestic shipping.

Services Provided By Freight Forwarder

Different freight forwarders provide different services. It’s important to know all kinds of services that can be provided by freight forwarders to give freedom of fair choice. There is a lot of risk, restrictions, rules, and paperwork which needs to be given proper thought before choosing a freight forwarder. The services are:

1) Customs clearance

Customs clearance work involves the preparation of genuine authorized documentation required to facilitate import and export submitted during customs examination, payment of customs duty, etc.

Documents involved are of two kinds.

a) Export Documentation

These are purchase orders from the buyer, sales invoice, packing list, shipping bill, Bill of Lading or air waybill, Certificate of Origin and any other specific documentation as specified by the buyer, or as required by financial institutions or LC (Letter of Credit) terms or as per importing country regulations.

b) Import Documentation

These include Purchase Order (PO) from Buyer, sales invoice of the supplier, Bill of Entry, Bill of Lading or Air waybill, Packing List, Certificate of Origin, and any other specific documentation required by the buyer, or financial institution or the importing country regulation.

2) Insurance

Since there is a lot of risk in freight forwarding, the service provides for freight forwarder liability insurance coverage to parties like freight and logistics operators, relocation companies, custom house brokers, warehouse keepers, road carriers.

3) Packing

Freight forwarders now and then also help in packaging and preparing products for export. Various types of goods require different types of packaging. For example, goods to be transported within the country require different compared to goods moving across international boundaries. Various goods need to remain in specific conditions to remain in a usable condition in transit as well.

Specific temperature, heat and pressure conditions should be handled with the utmost care, also keeping the costs down. All these needs are taken care of by freight forwarders. Transportation Management system(TMS) is currently being used to maintain transparent visibility whenever the shipment is in transit.

4) Labeling

Labeling of packages is essential to avoid important goods to be misplaced. Every labeled package must contain basic information about the package :

An organized list of contents in the shipping container

Information about hazardous and perishable items

Country of origin

Correct weight, in SI units/British units preferably.

 Details about Port of entry

Any other essential details about the handling of goods in the language of the destination country.

5) Storage/Warehousing

Certain freight forwarders may have their own warehouses to harbor commodities, but in maximum cases warehouse is provided by a comfortably positioned affiliate.

6) Inventory management

Utilization of experience and relationship with other shipment firms to reap maximum benefits at a limited cost.

Importance of A Freight Forwarder

Why exactly do we need a freight forwarder in the first place? The current section answers this in detail.

Apt knowledge about shipping companies, custom laws, and paperwork is a freight forwarder’s first and foremost strength.

A freight forwarder is a one-stop solution that provides a wide range of services required for hassle-free shipping so that you don’t have to run from door to door.

It takes the burden off you and saves you a lot of time while providing you safe, reliable, authorized shipping at competitive prices.

A freight forwarder comes to the rescue when you have little idea about international shipping standards and customs duties.

Freight forwarders can take the business to a whole new level by delivering the goods at the desired destination on time, saving you money in the process compared to doing it in an unorganized manner.

Many freight forwarders provide free services (without an additional cost). Some of these services could be warehouse storage, cargo tracking, cargo insurance and handling of perishable goods. Asking about the free services and making use of them can facilitate shipping to a great extent.

Freight forwarders are known to have excellent customer service and personal communication par excellence.

There might be some freight forwarders that specialize in a specific type of cargo, while others could provide services in all varieties of cargo. Choosing specialized freight forwarders can be more beneficial compared to others since they have prior experience of identifying and handling the type of cargo you have.

Additional Aspects Of Freight Forwarding

Freight forwarding companies adhere to strict regulations. Some of these companies may not deal with the shipping of a selected category of goods. These categories mostly include: a) Dangerous Goods (including flammable liquid and toxic items) b) Drugs (prescription and recreational) c) Alcohol d) Batteries e) Perishable items (except for those on special express delivery) f) Sharp objects

Freight forwarder companies are not shipping firms. Any inconvenience in the shipping of goods is not the fault of freight forwarder.

Maintaining a good relationship with the freight forwarder is crucial to your business since they have a widespread network that can help you further to expand your horizons.

The paperwork should be completed to the full and without any errors. This will help you smoothen out the shipping process without any repercussions. It will also make the work of your freight forwarder easier.

Breaking down freight forwarding has the following main stages: a) Export haulage – It involves the transfer of goods from its original source/manufacturer to the freight forwarder’s warehouse. b) Export customs clearance – Ensures that goods receive clearance to leave their country of origin. All the necessary paperwork for export is completed and customs duties are paid. c) Origin handling – the unloading, inspection, and validation of the cargo against the authorized documents. d) Import customs clearance – the customs import paperwork for your cargo will be checked by the authorities. e) Destination handling – It involves the handling of the goods cargo once it reaches the destination office, including transfer to the import warehouse. f) Import haulage – It involves the transfer of the goods cargo from the import warehouse to its final destination.

Types of Freight Forwarding

1) Sea freight

Sea freight services allow goods to shipped across international waters. There are various types of sea freight services:-

FCL stands for Full Container Load and refers to one 20ft, 40ft or 45ft container filled with cargo as well as flat racks and open-top containers.

LCL stands for Less than Container Load and refers to a shipment that doesn’t fill a standard container. The container is loaded with cargo from multiple consignees who share the container space to make it more economical.

RORO stands for Roll On, Roll Off and is the easiest and cheapest option for car shipping or transporting any vehicle. Vehicles are driven straight onto the RORO ship and securely blocked, braced, and tied down inside the ship where it is windproof and watertight, to ensure complete security.

Dry bulk shipping includes the transportation of dry bulk cargoes that are unpacked and homogeneous so that they can be dropped or poured into the hold of a bulk carrier. Dry bulk cargoes mostly contain farm produce and raw materials including coal, biomass, metal, and aggregates as well as grains and sugar.

2) Road freight

Also known as road haulage,  road freight refers to the transport of goods through roadways. It is the most common way of domestic shipping. It is of two kinds:

LTL stands for Less than Truckload Freight. It is generally chosen to transport cargoes of lesser size.

FTL stands for Full Truck Load Freight. It is either chosen by businesses that have bigger goods or time constraints or delicate goods to be shipped.

3) Rail freight

When goods are shipped through means of trains, or group of trains, it is referred to as rail freight.

5) Airfreight

When goods are shipped by means of airplanes or helicopters, it is called Air freight services.

6) Consolidators

Consolidators combine packages from many different shippers into one load that is shipped as a unit to the destinations’ local Post Office, often saving shippers money in the process. From there, the packages enter the local mail stream and are delivered to their final destination.

5) Customs brokers

Customs brokers are international trade experts who are responsible for preparing and clearing a customs entry upon shipment arrival to a port of entry. These professionals are well versed with the import regulations of a country and hence, are engaged by many organizations.

Top Global Freight Forwarders

DHL Supply Chain & Global Forwarding

Kuehne + Nagel

DB Schenker

DSV

Expeditors

Panalpina

Nippon Express

UPS Supply Chain Solutions

Bolloré Logistics

CEVA Logistics

Hellmann Worldwide Logistics

GEODIS

Kintetsu World Express

Kerry Logistics

DACHSER

C.H. Robinson

Agility

Hitachi Transport System

Damco

Toll Group

XPO Logistics

CJ Logistics

NNR Global Logistics

Sinotrans

Yusen Logistics

Oceans are still a mystery for humans. Large swathes and depths of the sea are still untouched and unvisited by us. And their lurks many puzzles, creatures, ocean mysteries, and natural phenomena.

Let’s talk about some of these solved and unsolved ocean mysteries that defy our eyes!

1) The Bermuda Triangle

The Mystery Of The Bermuda Triangle

The Bermuda Triangle is one of the most mysterious as well as a popular phenomenon in the whole world. It is also one of the oldest sea mysteries which dates back to the times of Christopher Columbus. It is a region in the Caribbean Sea where a lot of ships and aircrafts have gone missing. There are several theories that have been put forward in order to explain these disappearances. It happens to be one of the twelve vile vertices on the earth.

Many of the theories say that the disappearances occur because of the strong electromagnetic effect of the earth in the regions. Some people claim to have seen mysterious, paranormal incidents happening in the region. Some theories even go towards the extra-terrestrial. We still do not know the truth about the Bermuda Triangle, despite the many claims.

2) Bioluminescence

Bioluminescence

  Bioluminescence is a natural phenomenon in which a living organism causes the production and emission of light. It occurs because of a chemical reaction that produces light energy in the body of an organism and thus emits light. It is a type of chemiluminescence. This is a widely occurring phenomenon especially in Marine vertebrates and invertebrates, some fungi and bioluminescent bacteria.

In this phenomenon, the sea appears to have lit up. Some sailors called the phenomena as “The Burning Sea“.  It occurs very commonly among animals in the open sea like fish, jellyfish, bacteria, and fungi. start there are about 1500 species of fish that are known to produce luminescence.

3) Pororoca

Pororoca

Pororoca is a term used for a tidal bore. it has ways that can be up to 4 m high and can travel as far as 800 kilometers. This phenomenon occurs upstream of the Amazon River and its adjacent rivers.

During the nights of the full moon and new moon, the ocean tide is at the highest and the water flows in from the Atlantic instead of going the other way around. The flow of the Amazon reverses. The distance of this largely depends on the rainwater generated outflow of the river. A water bulge also speeds upstream with great force hence causing this phenomenon with an audible noise.

This phenomenon can be best observed during a bi-annual equinox which takes place in September and March. In this period the moon and the sun or in direct alignment with the Earth and the gravitational pull are combined.

The phenomenon is especially popular with surfers. Every year an annual surfing championship is held here. However, surfing in these tides can be dangerous as the water may contain a lot of debris and dangerous fauna.

4) Bimini Road

Bimini Road

Bimini Road is an underwater rock formation located near the North Bimini island in the Bahamas. It is also called the Bimini Wall.

It is a long North East south west linear feature with a length of 0.8 km. It is composed of somewhat rectangular limestone blocks. Its origins are not clearly known. However, some theories claim that this feature could be a wall, a breakwater, a road, a pier or any other man-made structure.

It was discovered in 1968 by 3 divers. Carbon dating tells us that this feature was made by geological forces and not by humans. Still, some people claim that this could be the location of the lost city of Atlantis.

5) Steaming Black Sea

Phenomena of the Steaming Black Sea, more commonly known as sea smoke, frost smoke or steam fog is a natural phenomenon that is formed by the movement of very cold air over warm water. In this, a light wind of very cold gets mixed with a shallow layer of saturated warm air which lies right above the warm water of the ocean. When the warm air can no longer hold so much of vapors the excess of it condenses out. This is similar to the production of steam over a hot bath.

This phenomenon appears to be turbulent. Sometimes it may even form spiraling columns. Sea smoke columns as high as 20 to 30 m in height have been observed. It is very common in the Arctic and Antarctic regions.

6) Julia Sound

Julia Sound was a weird noise which was recorded on 1st March 1999 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, thought to be from somewhere around Antarctica. It was an eerie noise that sounded almost like someone cooling or whining. It lasted for about 15 seconds.

It was so loud that it could be heard from Antarctica till the Equatorial Pacific Ocean autonomous hydrophone array. The NOAA believes that the source of the sound could be a large iceberg that had run aground off. It is on the list of some of the spookiest and most mysterious sounds recorded in the ocean.

7) Baltic Sea Anomaly

Baltic Sea Anomaly pic: Hauke Vagt

The Baltic Sea anomaly is nothing by the interpretations of an indistinct sonar image. It was accidentally discovered by the diving team in 2011. They claim to have found a 60 m thick circular entity about 90 m deep into the Baltic Sea.

The object seems to have unusual features and a non-natural origin. Some people believe that it is a sunken UFO. Scientist believes that the image is nothing but a geological formation. The divers also claim that attract that seems to be directed towards this object also exists. The length of the track is nearly 300 m.

Despite the many interpretations and media attention that this has received, scientists do not believe that the origin of this object could be extra-terrestrial. However, this still remains one of the most intriguing and unsolved mysteries of the oceans.

8) Green Flashes

Green Flashes pic: Chris Mannerino

Green flashes are meteorological optical phenomena occurring in the oceans usually just before sunrise or after sunset. They can also occur over the top of clouds and mountains. A distinct green spot is visible for a few seconds above the upper room of the sun’s disc.

This may also occasionally resemble a green Ray shooting up from the point of sunrise or sunset. This phenomenon only takes place when the conditions are right. It happens because the earth’s atmosphere causes the light from the sun to separate into distinct colors. It can be called a natural prismatic effect.

Green classes are usually seen at unobstructed horizons, and hence usually take place over oceans. A green flash was photographed in color for the first time in 1960 from a Vatican Observatory.

 9) The convergence of Baltic and North Seas

Convergence of Baltic and North Seas

This is an oceanic phenomenon in which the Baltic Sea and the North Seas are visibly converging. However, there is no visible barrier present. The only barrier present is a chemical difference in salinity. It is known as a halocline. We can see the two different appearances of the seas.

We can say that the two seas do not mix because they have different rates of densities of water. The Baltic Sea mostly contains freshwater from a large land catch basin whereas the North Sea, which comes from the Danish Straits, is more saline in nature. This conversion takes place in the province of Skagen, Denmark.

Sometimes, surface mixing of the seas takes place because of regional temperature variations but in general, the seas are permanently separated. There is a lot of complicated chemistry involved in this phenomenon.

This is an unusual phenomenon and one of the most beautiful ones observed in oceans.

10) Underwater Crop Circles

Crop circles under the ocean, first spotted in 1995 off the southern coasts of Japan, were a matter of great intrigue and discussions for scientists. The locals termed these as mystery circles. These mystery circles actually remain a mystery until 2011.

The answer to this mystery is pufferfish. These species create elaborate circular designs in order to woo females. Scientists say that it is the quality of the circle that can help us determine of female’s mate choice. Resorts team one observed 10 constructions going on by 4 to 8 male pufferfish. It took them about 7 to 9 days to build a circle. They use their fans to dig in the sandy bottoms. They also decorated the pics which shell and coral fragments.

These patterns also stored sand particles and post them towards the center of the circle which served as a real nest. When the mating is completed, and the eggs hatch, the nests are abandoned by the males and the process continues.

11) Sea Foam

Sea Foam

Sea foam is a kind of foam created because of the agitation of seawater. It particularly happens when seawater contains higher concentrations of organic matter dissolved in it. This organic matter may come from sources such as algal blooms. Other organic matter maybe proteins, fats, pollutants, detergents, etc present in the water body. Sea form is also called as ocean foam, beach foam or spume.

If we collect this kind of seawater in a glass and shake it vigorously, we will observe small bubbles forming on the surface of the liquid.

Sea form is actually a normal phenomenon and not harmful in any way. However, in the case of algal decay on a grand scale, this sea foam thickens. This can have a harmful impact on human health as well as the environment.

12) Red Tides

Red tides are phenomena caused by algal blooms. In this, the algal blooms become so large in number that coastal waters get discolored by them. This may also cause a depletion of oxygen in the ocean waters other releases of toxins that are harmful to human health and the environment.

Some of the main factors that cause red tides are an increase in ocean surface temperatures, high nutrient contents, calm seas, sunny days after rain and winds, currents or ships which may carry these tides over long distances.

Some of the many countries affected by this phenomenon include Canada, England, Australia, France, India, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, United States, Sweden, Spain etc.

Red tides are harmful because they release toxins in the ocean water. They may also trigger processes like biomagnification or bioaccumulation. They are harmful for aquatic life. give me also spread diseases in human beings such as food poisoning.

Currently, researchers are trying to develop an antidote to the toxins caused by red tides.

References:

http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2013/08/15/underwater-crop-circles-mystery-solved/

https://www.theactivetimes.com/travel/these-mysteries-seas-will-shock-you/slide-9

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_flash

Crop circles under the ocean

Leading a successful voyage of a ship is a difficult and challenging affair especially in the middle of the oceans when the waters are most treacherous and perilous than ever. The ships could meet with any kind of obstacles like storms, icebergs for giant waves which main leads to capsizing. This article discusses one such hindrance called rogue waves.

A rogue wave is an enormous and unexpected surface wave. It is extremely dangerous even to large-sized ships. So much so that they are also called freak waves, monster waves, extreme waves, abnormal waves or episodic waves.

The waves are most dangerous because they can occur suddenly and without any warning. There is no way to predict their occurrence and the damage that they can cause may be enough to completely sink the ship. They mostly occur in the areas of the ocean where the waters are the deepest and may also be a result of a number of waves joining together. Their height is much larger than normal waves and it is most of the time, double. They can be as tall as 65 to even 100 feet as compared to the height of an average wave which is 39 feet.

Modern ships today are constructed to be able to tolerate a breaking wave of 15 metric tons per square meter. However, a rogue wave is capable of exerting a pressure of over a hundred metric tons per square meter. This figure is much larger than what the ship is prepared for. Hence the massive damage that they can cause is no surprise.

What causes Rogue waves?

These waves are not a result of earthquakes or tsunamis but are an open water phenomenon caused by winds, currents, solitons or other circumstances. These circumstances cause the wave to form much larger than the average height. The best explanation for this can be the occurrence of a phenomenon called constructive interference in which different waves traveling at different speeds pile up or combined together to form one giant wave.

Rogue waves can also be caused by the influences of strong currents. Currents can make the height of the waves increase and cause them to break. This is an acceptable explanation as rogue waves often occur in areas of the oceans which are known to experience strong currents. They are also common in the Bermuda Triangle and may be one of the explanations for the mysterious disappearances in the area.

Also read: What are water spouts?

How to predict Rogue Waves?

It has been almost impossible to predict the occurrence of rogue waves in the past years. However, modern technology has enabled us to somewhat predict their occurrence. One of the methods to do so is satellite tracking of wave formation. Because of this, it is possible for the crew of the ship to take necessary actions and try to prevent any casualties. Efforts are being made to construct ships that may be able to hold the damage and the pressure that these waves cause.

Rogue waves were considered to the non-existent and mythical in history because of the lack of evidence for their existence. Many people associated the causalities of the wave to be due to supernatural causes.

Today’s science and technology has allowed people to believe that they do exist. However, the precise reason for their occurrence is still not clear. Modern and sophisticated scientific methods have allowed us to somewhat foresee the waves and save lives. In the years to come, science may be able to help us to be immune to these waves to a much larger extent. Until then, ships can only hope to steer a course free from these monstrous waves or be informed about the approaching threat of rogue waves well in advance so as to save as many lives and prevent as much damage as possible.

References

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/roguewaves.html

Pic: https://ift.tt/3epOJUW

The TI class supertankers is a class of the four largest ships in the world by displacement, gross tonnage, and deadweight tonnage. They are owned by Tankers International L.L.C.

The TI in the name stands for the same (Tankers International). These were the first ultra-large crude carriers built in nearly the past three decades. They have contributed greatly to the transport of crude oil through waterways for many years. This class comprises four ships namely – TI Africa, TI Asia, TI Europe, and Tankers International. The original names of the ships at the time of their construction were Hellespont Metropolis, Hellespont Alhambra, Hellespont Tara, and Hellespont Fairfax respectively. They were built in South Korea by Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering in Okpo in 2002 and 2003 for the Hellespont Group shipping company.

The four ships all together are also known as the fantastic four. They are all dual hull ships. They are safe for sharing oil without causing oil spills or major environmental hazards in case of accidents. Almost all of them have a speed of about 16.5 knots which is quite high. This enables the fast and time-efficient transport of cargo across countries.

The ships have ballast tanks and inert gas systems in order to reduce complications that may occur out of leakage of gases. The upper house of the ship is painted white in order to reflect the energy of the sun. Owing to all these features the hydrocarbon emissions from the ships have been considerably minimized. The ships also have the ability to travel through the Panama Canal as well as the Suez Canal.

Currently, three of the four ships have been converted into Floating, Storage and Offloading (FSO) vessels like the Knock Nevis before its scrapping, but all of them are still in use. They have been in service for almost two decades now and are estimated to have a life of another 5 years.

Each of these four ships has been briefly described as follows.

1) TI Africa

TI Africa (Hellespont Metropolis) pic courtesy: Overseas Shipholding Group, Inc.

This is the second oldest shared among the four ultra-large crude carriers. It was awarded in January of 2000 and launched in September of the next year. It was initially named Hellespont Metropolis what was given its current name in 2004. It was purchased by the OSG group. It is a double hull ship that has a gross tonnage of about 234,000 tons. It was converted into a Floating, Storage and Offloading (FSO) vessel from a supertanker in 2010. It is still in service as of 2019.

2) TI Asia

TI Asia (Hellespont Alhambra)

TI Asia is the oldest ship among the four TI class supertankers. Ordered in January of 2001, it was launched in June of the following year. In 2010, it was converted into an FSO i.e. a Floating, Storage and Offloading vessel. It has a length of about 380 m and a beam of 68 meters. Its gross tonnage is 236,638 units. It was originally called Hellespont Alhambra but renamed as TI Asia in 2002. It was bought by the OSG Group like her sister, TI Africa.

3) TI Europe

TI Europe (Hellespont Tara)

The TI Europe was ordered in the year 2001 and launched in November 2002. It has a gross tonnage of about 234,000 tons and a speed of 16.5 knots. It has the capacity to carry more than 5 million liters of crude oil. Like its other sister ships (TI class supertankers), it has a length of 380 meters and a beam of 68 meters. It is owned by Euronav NV. It was initially named Hellespont Tara but was renamed in 2002. It was converted into a Floating, Storage and Offloading (FSO) vessel in 2017 and is still in service as of 2019. It currently comes under the French flag.

4) TI Oceania

TI Oceania (Hellespont Fairfax) pic: The Hellespont Group

TI Oceania ship was ordered in 2001 and launched in the year 2002. It is almost exactly similar in dimensions to the rest of the TI class supertankers. It has a deadweight tonnage of nearly 400,000 tons and it has the capacity to carry more than 3 million barrels of oil. It is currently under the French flag but has also been under the Greek and Belgian flags at a point in its life. It is still successfully in service as a supertanker, unlike its other three sisters which have been converted into Floating, Storage and Offloading (FSO) vessels, as of 2019.

It was initially named Hellespont Fairfax at the time of construction. It was renamed as TI Oceania in 2004. Its currency name is Overseas Laura Lynn which is given to it in March 2015.

  Videos

References:

https://tankersinternational.com/

Since its inception, we at Maritime Manual have strived hard to present the most up-to-date and authentic news about the shipping and cargo industry. In this short span, besides the readership and appreciation of our loyal readers, we have also received recognition from some of the best publications in the industry.

Recently, FeedSpot honored Maritime Manual by including it in the Top 50 Shipping Blogs list.

Maritime Manual thanks our readers and industry experts for their continued support and wishes!

Modern-day ships are equipped with several modern equipment and safety measures to ensure a smooth and successful voyage. These new techniques have emerged and evolved from years and years of study, research and experimenting. One such system is the Automatic Identification System or AIS. This article discusses the meaning of this term, the purpose and uses of the system, its working, its limitations and the kind of role it plays on present-day vessels.

What is an Automatic Identification System?

An automatic identification system is a tracking system used by vessel traffic services. It displays the vessels lying in the proximity of another in order to avoid a collision. It uses transponders on ships. It is used for exchanging navigational information with the help of electrical signals.

What does AIS do?

As the term suggests, this system is automated and autonomous. AIS transponders are mandatory to be carried by all commercial vessels which have a gross tonnage of over 299 as well as all passenger vessels as per the International Maritime Organization since 2004.

AIS transponders consist of a global positioning system. The GPS collects the vessel position and location details. These details are automatically broadcasted via a transmitter at regular intervals of time. This information is received by base stations order vessels that are within range. These signals can be displayed on the computer all depicted on chart letters after processing. Some automatic identification systems also make the use of satellites for the same purpose.

Why is AIS used?

Automatic identification systems are quite often used as a surveillance tool especially in coastal areas where the authorities used to monitor the movement of ships through that area. The channels can also be used by the shore side authorities to convey information on tides and weather conditions to the incoming ships. Other information and instructions need to monitor ship containers in hazardous cargo for fishing vessels can also be provided with the help of AIS. It can also be used to find out about the availability of vessels in the proximity of an incident for SAR operations.

Another important use of the automatic identification system is the avoidance of collision. This is a part of providing navigational safety to the ships. Having an AIS is good for a ship as it allows to increase the situation awareness and decision making on the ship. It makes the crew of the ship aware of another vessel that may be in its vicinity. However, it is not advisable to solely rely on this system for avoidance of collision.

How does AIS work?

In the beginning, automatic identification systems were used terrestrially. In the system, the signal was sent from the boat to the land. It had a very small range of just about 20 miles and the signal began to get weaker as the boat moved further away.

Later on, satellite systems started getting adopted. Now the ships could send a signal to satellites and the satellites send them back to the land. This enables the authorities on land to know exactly where the ship is and at what time.

The automatic identification system consists of a transmitter, receivers and marine electronic communications link for sensor systems and display.

A GPS is normally used to derive the coordinates that are the position and timing of the vessel.

One channel is sufficient for communication. Still, the most station transmits and receive more than one radio channel so as to avoid interference and communication losses with ships.

Every 6 minutes, static information like name and call sign, length and beam, type of ship, location of antenna, MMSI no., IMO no. etc. are transmitted. dynamic information transmitted includes the position of the ship, the position time stamp and the course over ground. Other than this information transmitted at regular intervals of time includes the draught of the ship, destination, the type of cargo being transported, routine plan, etc.

The main purpose behind fitting AIS on ships is for their identification and navigational marks. In regions like the Panama Canal, the automatic identification system is also used to provide information about rain, wind and other weather conditions.

Though it was initially started as a method of controlling marine traffic and avoiding collisions, it is an undeniable fact that its capabilities are applicable to a wider spectrum. Nowadays these systems are used by port authorities, ship owners, managers, builders, ship agents, brokers, researchers, data analysts, charterers, hotel, and tour operators, search and rescue teams, operators, pilots, harbormasters, flag administrators, classification societies, passengers, sailors, vessel crew, coast guards, border patrol, marine enthusiasts, radio amateurs, environmental protection agents, etc.

AIS Types

Class A

Class A AIS  is included for all SOLAS vessels of 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international voyages,  vessels of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on international voyages and passenger ships irrespective of size.

Class B

Class B AIS is intended for non-SOLAS vessels. These include domestic commercial vessels such as pleasure crafts. AIS Class B units provide less functionality than Class A units but they operate and communicate with AIS Class A units and other types of AIS units.

What Information is transmitted by an AIS?

An AIS can send 2 types of information – Dynamic or Static information.

1) Dynamic information refers to the data transmitted every 2-10 seconds depending on the vessel’s speed and course while underway or every 6 minutes if the vessel with Class A transponder is at anchor.

MMSI number: unique identification number with nine digits

AIS Navigational Status: “0=under way using engine”, “1=at anchor”, “2=not under command”, “5=moored”, “8=under way sailing”

Rate of Turn: right or left (0 – 720 degrees per minute)

Speed over Ground: from 0 to 102 knots (189 km/h) with 0.1-knot resolution (0.19 km/h)

Position: (latitude&longitude – up to 0.0001 minutes accuracy)

Course over Ground: relative to true north to 0.1°

Heading: 0 – 359 degrees

UTC seconds: the seconds’ field of the UTC time when these vessels’ data was generated

2) Static & Voyage related information is provided by the subject vessel’s crew and is transmitted every 6 minutes regardless of the vessel’s movement status

International Maritime Organisation number (IMO number): a unique code associated with the hull which remains the same throughout a ship’s lifetime even if it changes owners.

Call Sign: international radio call sign assigned by the vessel’s country’s licensing authorities

Name: Name of the vessel. It can have a maximum of 20 characters

Type: It consists of two digits. While the first digit indicates the vessel’s category and the second digit provides tells the type of cargo.

Dimensions: indicates the size of the vessel to the nearest meter

Location of the positioning system’s antenna on board the vessel: distance from bow, stern, port and starboard sides in meters

Type of positioning system: GPS, DGPS, Loran-C, GLONASS, etc.

Draught: 0.1 – 25.5 meters

Destination:  upto 20 characters

ETA (Estimated Time of Arrival) at destination: UTC month/date hours:minutes

Where is AIS Used?

AIS used by a diverse set of professionals such as :

Port Authorities and Harbor Masters

Tug Operators and Pilots

Coast Guard and Border Patrol

Ship Owners, and Builders

Ship Agents, Brokers, and Charterers

Researchers and Data Analysts

Naval Search and Rescue teams

Flag administrators and Classification Societies

Vessel crews and family members

Hotels and Tour operators

Passengers or recreational sailors

Environmental Protection agents

Maritime Enthusiasts and Radio-amateurs

Limitations of AIS

AIS has proved to be an efficient and important part of modern ships. However much like any other implementation in the world, the AIS has its limitations.

First of all, the accuracy of the information which is received depends on the information transmitted and is only as good as the latter. Even today not all ships are equipped with an automatic information system. one should also be aware that an automatic information system can be switched off by any vessel at any time. Due to this, the ship might negate any information that it has previously received. Accuracy of the positions that is the latitude and longitude received by the GPS is also not certain. There is only so much that can be done about precision.

Finally, one must understand that the automatic information system is one of the best tools ever to be introduced in the marine industry. It forms an important part of the navigational equipment on board modern vessels. As useful as it is for navigation and accident prevention, it should be realized that the system is merely present for the purpose of assisting the crew of the ship and it cannot completely replace human beings or human resources.

Ships have been a part of human history since time immemorial. Over the centuries, humans have managed to design different types of ships for serving different purposes such as transport, rescue, fishing, leisure, etc. Even today, ships are an indispensable part of human life.

Thousands of ships set sail every day and several are under construction. All ships serve humans throughout their life while some meet an untimely and unfortunate end by capsizing. Sunken ships have led to losses of millions of lives and artifacts in history, some of which remain famous to date. This article lists some of the most amazing sunken ships in the world.

1) The HMHS Britannic

The HMHS Britannic

The HMHS Britannic was a sister ship of the infamous RMS Titanic. It was constructed by the same company i.e. the White Star Line after the sinking of Titanic. Keeping in mind the previous tragedy, the HMHS Britannic was built with more safety measures such as a greater number of lifeboats and a reinforced hull around the parts vulnerable to icebergs. It was much larger than the Titanic. It could have been a cruise ship but was requisitioned by the government as a hospital ship as the world war broke out. After about a year of service, it was brought down by the enemy fire. Luckily, most of its 1000 passengers survived. It is one of the most famous sunken ships in naval history.

2) MV Rozi

MV Rozi

MV Rozi or Tugboat Rozi is a ship that was deliberately sunk after being decommissioned, as an artificial reef in Malta. Divers are allowed to go scuba diving in the area. In fact, it has become one of the most popular scuba diving destinations in Malta. The ship has been under the ownership of Captain Morgan Cruises since 1992.

3) Giannis D

Giannis D

Giannis D was a cargo ship built in Japan in 1969. In 1983, the ship was on a voyage from Yugoslavia to Yemen. The ship drifted west of the set course in the Straits of Gubal and capsized that night and broke into half. Today, it is used as a diving site.

4) Frigate 356

Frigate 356

The ship was one of the last of the Soviet combat vessels built towards the end of the cold war during the early 1980s. The use of this vessel was discontinued following the fall of the Soviet Union. It is more than 300 feet long and currently can be found at the bottom of the waters of Cayman Bay. The marvel here is that the shape has not corroded or oxidized even when it sank more than 20 years ago because it was mostly made out of aluminum.

5) Sweepstakes

Sweepstakes Ship pic courtesy: https://www.flickr.com/photos/44124370018@N01/48484766072

This was a vessel built-in 1867 in Ontario. It sank at the big tub harbor in 1885. It could not be repaired at it had suffered serious damage. However, the coal that it was shipping was retrieved. The hull of the ship is still intact and rests in the water at the depth of 20 feet a few yards away from Big Tub Harbor.

6) RMS Lusitania

RMS Lusitania

The RMS Lusitania was a British ship that was used to transport war munitions during the first world war under the group that it wouldn’t be attacked by the Germans as it was a non-military ship. It was briefly the largest ship in the world. It was sunk by a German U-boat in 1915. The wreck of the ship can be found near the lighthouse at Kinsale.

7) USS Arizona

USS Arizona

When we talk about sunken ships, how can we forgot this mighty warrior? USS Arizona is one of the most famous wartime casualties in the world. It came into service in 1916 and was struck in 1942. It sank during the attack on Pearl Harbour. It is one of the most famous shipwrecks in the world. Memorial to pay tribute to the Navy men who gave the lives for the country has been built on top of this wreck. It is one of the sunken ships in Pearl Harbor.

8) P29

P29 Maltese Patrol Boat

P29 was a petrol boat from Malta. It was resold to the country after being abandoned by the Volksmarine before the reunification of Germany. This is another example of a boat that was sunk for the purpose of recreational diving. It was scuttled in 2007.

9) Whydah Gally

Whydah Gally

This was a pirate ship that belonged to ‘Black Sam’ Bellamy. He was one of the most successful pirates in history. The amount of treasures that he collected in his life from ships would be was nearly 120 million dollars today. He and his ship met an end when his ship was struck by a huge storm and sank resulting in the death of most of his crew and himself. Most office Treasure also sank with the ship. The wreck was discovered 260 years later and much of the treasure has been recovered.

Also read: Top 10 Historic Ships

10) Queen Anne’s Revenge

Queen Anne’s Revenge

Another pirate ship, Queen Anne’s Revenge was one of the most fearsome ships to ever sail the seas. It was used as a flagship by the infamous pirate, Edward Teach, commonly known as Blackbeard. He used the ship for less than a year in 1717. The wreck of the ship was discovered in 1996. However, it took a long time for it to be identified as Queen Anne’s Revenge. Thousands of valuable items and artifacts were recovered.

11) USS Utah

USS Utah

The USS Utah is yet another example of a second world war causality. It also sank during the attack on Pearl Harbour in 1941. It was commissioned in 1911. The wreck of the ship remain in the Pearl Harbour. A memorial dedicated to the men who were killed in the attack has been placed at the wreck.

12) HMS Prince Albert

HMS Prince Albert

This ship was once used to do transport people from Nicaragua to Roatan. After it was decommissioned, it was purchased by a local resort owner. It was deliberately sunk to be turned into a popular recreational diving area.

Emergencies are not uncommon in the marine world, especially during a voyage. It is even more difficult to transport oil as oil tankers may be vulnerable to challenges like leakage, fire emergencies or threats from pirates.

Each and every person involved in the operation of a ship is trained to act in an emergency situation. There are some necessary precautions and safety measures that can help a ship’s management to ensure a risk-free and smooth sail.

How To Make Cargo Operation On Oil Tankers Safer?

Following are some of those safety measures which can make the cargo handling operations safe.

1) Close Accommodation Openings

The accommodation area of a ship is the living space which contains all the cabins for the ship’s crew, meeting rooms, lockers, mushrooms, provision stores, recreational rooms, etc. During a cargo operation, it should be ensured that all the openings to this area are closed. This helps to prevent cargo vapors from ingressing or entering. This measure needs to be taken for the sake of safety despite the discomfort that the crew might face because of the temperature and humidity.

2) Keep Vents Open

All cargo tank vents and high-velocity vent valves should be operational during the handling process. All P/V valves must also be checked during ballast watches for safe and proper operation.

3) Closing Sighting and Ullage Ports

An ullage tank is a tank that is almost full. On an oil tanker, all ullage ports must be closed securely and not opened until there is a requirement. No sampling, sound or auditing of tanks must be in progress while connecting or disconnecting the burning cable to the ship.

4) Shut Down Ballast Tanks

All segregated ballast tanks should be closed. Cargo leaks from the cargo tanks into permanent ballast tanks this can create a serious pollution problem. Ingress of water from the ballast tanks into the cargo spaces should also be checked on a daily basis.

5) Short Natural Ventilation

If need be, any kind of ventilation must be shut off or isolated from the direction of the cargo vapor flow.

6) Shut Tank Lids

No tank lids on the entire vessel should be left open. It should be ensured that all cargo tank hatches, ports or access openings are closed tightly. In this manner, the escape of oil and other hydrocarbon vapors can be prevented.

7) Strainer Cover, Drain Plug and Inspection Plates

A strainer is a simple device that is installed to hold large foreign objects from causing damage or blockage. It should be ensured that the strainer cover, inspection plate and drain plug located in the pump room are in proper positions.

8) Check Pump Room

A pump room is that area of the ship which contains the largest concentration of pipelines. The pump room of a ship should be positively checked at regular intervals of time especially during cargo handling.

9) Gas Freeing Operation

During a gas freeing operation or tank washing, it should be ensured that all the washing covers are removed. At all the other times, they should be closed. Only the people who are directly involved in the operations should be allowed on the main deck. Also, everybody involved in the operation should be dressed appropriately and observe anti-static precautions.

10) Checking High-Pressure Alarm

During the loading operation, the high-pressure alarm of the cargo tanks should be checked properly.

11) Shut AC If Required

Sometimes the air conditioning systems’ intake air could draw cargo vapors. In such a case, the AC system should be stopped. Hence, the accommodation area will find its ports shut.

12) Cargo Hoses and Flange Connections

A cargo hose is used to ship to shore products like chemicals. A flange is a rim that is installed for increasing the strength of another object. Cargo hoses in flanges should always be checked thoroughly before use. All the courses should also be handled properly. They should be lifted and not dragged on the deck. Cargo hoses in flanges should also be supported at various points in order to avoid twisting. They must also be adjusted according to the draught of the shape of the cargo operation proceeds.

In the same manner, all flanges must also be properly tightened using bolts. One should always be careful while removing a flange from any section of the pipeline in order to ensure that it does not contain oil at pressure and is made up of approved metal like steel.

13) Check Limit of Elevation

A metal cargo arm is designed in such a way that it can operate under various elevations arising because of the tidal effects. The limit of elevation of metal cargo arms must also be examined properly. This involves a comparison with the ship’s data. The cargo operation can only be improved in all the criteria for this are met.

14) Isolate Window AC Unit

If the time comes, any kind of window AC unit present on the ship needs to be shut down or isolated.

15) Check Gland Condition of Pumps

It should be ensured that the gland conditions of all the cargo pumps situated in the pump room are thoroughly checked and examined.

16) Check Alarms and Trips

It is to be ensured that all alarms and trips are working properly before any cargo operation begins.

17) Handling the Arm

The metal arm is acquitted with a parking lock. This parking lock should not be tampered with or removed unless and until the metal arm is empty. If it is opened before, it can lead to an oil spill. Also, if the arm has any ice on it, it must be removed immediately before opening the lock or else it could cause an imbalance.

18) Mooring Ropes

One should always keep an eye on the mooring ropes with which the arm is connected for operation. They should always be monitored, and the operation should be stopped immediately if there is excessive drifting.

19) Earthing

This is one of the most important precautions to be taken. Pipeline flow may electrostatically charge the static accumulator oil. Hence, pipeline bonding is mandatory so that electrostatic charge accumulation can be prevented. So, the pipelines should be bonded to each other and to the structure of the ship. The structure of a ship is finally naturally earthed to the sea through the hull.

20) Check Emergency Release

Emergency releases should be checked in advance and the draining arrangements should be ready so that as much oil as possible can be drained out if there is a situation of an oil spill.

21) Lighting

During night time, it must be ensured that the cargo station and pump rooms are provided with sufficient light.

22) Weather

The master of the ship and the terminal in charge should always keep an eye on the weather conditions at sea at all times. In case of rough weather like lightning or storms, the ship cargo operation should immediately be stopped.

23) Keep Equipment Ready

All sorts of safety equipment such as oil spill fighting equipment, firefighting equipment as well as personal protective equipment, gas detection equipment, etc. must be ready at all times to ensure maximum safety.

24) Crew

Finally, the crew of the ship should be well aware of their duties and must be well trained about how to react during an emergency situation at regular intervals of time.

Also read: 15 Common Oil Cleanup Methods At Sea

References:

http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Safety/Regulations/Pages/OilTankers.aspx

  Oil spill is the release of oil into the environment. Spilling of crude oil or any oil distilled product ( like gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuels, Stoddard solvent, hydraulic oils, lubricating oils) pollute the surface of the land, air and  water environment

Oil spill is a kind of environmental pollution. Oil spill affects marine life for a decade after they occur. The effects are worse if it happens near the coastal communities. Birds, Fishes and other mammals all are affected. The oil penetrates into the structure of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. Seas mammals, birds and fishes die if they ingest or inhale the oil. They may suffer deformities like stunted growth, fin abnormalities, fertility problems, etc.

Oil spills also have a negative impact on the local industries. The fishing, shipping and tourism industries often suffer economic losses.

Major Oil Spills

Here is the list of some of the major oil spills in the history of the maritime world.

Gulf War Of Oil Spill

F-14A VF-114 over burning Kuwaiti oil well 1991

The Gulf War of Oil Spill was one of the largest oil spills in history. It occurred because of the Gulf War.  It was not an accident but a deliberate spilling. In 1991, retreating Iraqi forces intentionally released more than 240 million gallons of oil into the Persian Gulf. They did so in order to prevent US forces from landing on the Kuwait beach.

The resulting oil slick ravaged the marine ecosystem of the area. Thousands of seabirds and other endangered species died. A major health hazard on the people was pressed after the spill. The slick reached a minimum size of 101 miles by 42 miles and was 5 inches thick in some areas.

Booms and skimmers were used in order to keep the oil away from the desalination plants, which provided drinking water to residents in the area.

Read more: 15 Common Oil Cleanup Methods At Sea

Deepwater Horizon

Deepwater Horizon

Deepwater Horizon oil spill is also known as the Gulf of Mexico oil spill or BP oil spill. This oil spill occurred at the Macondo Prospect on April 20, 2010. The BP oil spill is considered the largest marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry and estimated to be 8% to 31% larger in volume than the previously largest, the Ixtoc I oil spill. This accident led to the release of 4.9 million barrels of oil into the sea.

The accident was caused by the explosion at the oil rig. The oil continuously leaked for 85 days until it was plugged. 11 workers died in this accident.

Almost 10 million pounds of oily residue was removed from Louisiana shorelines. It killed vegetation and caused erosion. The oil disaster affected the cellular function of the killfish. A US district court found BP responsible for the spill due to negligence. They had several fines and civil settlements totaling 60 billion dollars. It is still to date one of the most infamous oil spills in the US.

Ixtoc I Oil Spill

Ixtoc I oil spill accident led to the release of 140 million gallons of crude oil into the Bay of Campeche. Ixtoc I was an oil well bring which was being drilled in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico by a government-owned country Pemex in 1979. On June 3, the circulation of the drilling mud failed, causing an oil spill, explosion, and fire that led to the destruction and sinking of the rig.

The spilled oil covered the area of 1100 square miles. It caused severe damage to marine life. To slow down the flow of the oil, mud and sheet balls were dropped into the well. Later the spilled oil was contained using skimming equipment and bonus.

Atlantic Empress

Atlantic Empress Oil Spill

SS Atlantic Empress was a large crude oil carrier built in Denmark and launched in 1974. Just five years later, in 1979, it collided with the Aegean Captain 18 miles off the coast Tobago. It was on its way to Texas while the other oil transport was en route to Aruba. It was owned by the South Gulf Shipping Company of Greece.  The collision and fire claimed the lives of 26 of the Empress’s crew members.

Atlantic Empress burnt for two weeks before it sank after it was towed to shore. About 88.3 million gallons of crude oil were spilled into the sea. It was the largest ship-source spill ever recorded. No oil came ashore and no indications of any environmental damage were observed.

Atlantic Empress was the largest ship ever sunk. There wasn’t much cleanup needed because of the climate conditions.

 Nowruz Field Platform

This massive oil spill accident took place on February 10, 1983. This oil spill was caused by a tanker ramming into a rig. 1500 barrels of crude oil leaked per day but as it was in the middle of the war zone so the oil spill could not be capped. The platform was attacked by the Iraqi helicopters and the slick caught fire. The rig was eventually plugged in September 1983.

Overall, 80 million gallons of oil spilled. Eleven people lost their lives during the capping. Skimmers and pumps of Norpol (a Norwegian company) were used for the cleanup process.

ABT Summer

ABT Summer Oil Spill

ABT Summer oil spill was loaded with approximately 1.9 million ballers of oil when it exploded just 800 miles off the coast of Angola, Africa. Tanker blew up at random causing the entire ship to start sinking. The cause of the explosion is still unknown. Out of 32 crew members, one died in this accident and 4 members went missing. They were never found and were declared dead.

ABT Summer oil tanker was an Iranian crude oil ship that was built in South Korea. 51-81 million gallons of oil spilled in this accident. The environmental impact was very less compared to what was expected. There was not much to clean up after the oil spill. The tanker burned for three days before sinking. Surprisingly, the oil was broken up by high seas. Along the coast, the action was taken to clean up the spill. It took a large number of workers and machinery to clean it up.

Castillo De Bellver

Castillo De Bellver Oil Spill: Source: CEDRE, ITOPF, CTX – Image: Castillo de Bellver in flames off the coast of South Africa

Castillo De Bellver oil spill started on August 6, 1983. This crude container ship caught fire about 70 miles north-west of Cape Town, South Africa. The tanker was carrying crude oil through an environmentally sensitive area. It was carrying 250,000 tonnes of light crude oil. The vessel was abandoned and broke apart after drifting offshore. Luckily, no human life was lost in this accident. A total volume of 145,000-170,000 tonnes of oil entered the sea.

Although the accident took placed in the area having rich flora and fauna, the environmental damage was less. There was little damage to the local fish market. “Black rain” of oil droplets fell immediately to the east of the spill during the first 24 hours on wheat-growing and sheep-grazing fields, but no long term damage was recorded.

Amoco Cadiz

Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill

Amoco Cadiz oil spill took place on March 16, 1978. It was a very large crude carrier (VLCC) owned by Amoco Transport Corp. On its last journey, the ship was heading for Lyme Bay in the United Kingdom when its rudder and hydraulic system were damaged. Several attempts were made by the German and French tug boats to pull the ship to open waters. But the ship hit a rock and began to leak. The stormy weather resulted in the complete breakdown of the ship. The ship ran aground on shallow rocks off the coast of Brittany.

Amoco Cadiz contained 1,604,500 Barrels of light crude oil. The US NOAA estimates that the total oil spill amounted to 220,800 metric tons of oil. It was listed as the world’s fifth-biggest oil tanker accident. The oil penetrated up to the depth of 20 inches in the sands of affected beaches. The Amoco Cadiz incident resulted in the largest loss of marine life ever recorded after an oil spill of that time.

Taylor Energy

Taylor Energy was an American oil company. Taylor oil spill is an ongoing spill located in the Gulf of Mexico, around 11 miles off the coast of the U.S. state of Louisiana. The spill started in 2004 because of the destruction of a Taylor Energy oil platform during Hurricane Ivan. It was noticed after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill took place.

Satellite imagery shows slicks varying in size, sometimes ranging up to 30 miles in length. These slicks have the potential to impact public marine resources including plankton, fish, birds, mammals, and turtles. As of 2018, it was estimated that 300 to 700 barrels of oil spills in the ocean every day. Taylor Energy has spent as much as $435 million or more decommissioning the site. They contend that nothing can be done to contain the spill.

MT Haven

MT Haven was a VLCC, hired by Troodos Shipping. In 1991, the ship exploded, caught fire and sank off the coast of Genoa, Italy. It became one of the largest shipwrecks in the world. Also, it was one of the worst oil pollution incidents in the Mediterranean Sea. The tanker was carrying 144,000 tons of crude oil.

The reason for the explosion was poor maintenance of the ship. Six crew members lost their lives in this accident. About 45 million gallons of oil spilled for 12 years. The oil spill caused severe damage to the marine life of the sea. Booms and skimmers were employed by a private company that recovered approximately 35,700 barrels of oil.

Odyssey Oil Spill

Odyssey was a Liberian tanker that sunk into the ship because of the explosion. This accident happened on November 10, 1988, 700 miles off Nova Scotia. The tanker suddenly exploded and broke into two, catching fire. The explosion occurred because of the storm. The spilled oil caught the flames and burned, so no oil reached the coastal area.

27 crew members went recorded missing and were assumed dead. About 43 million gallons of crude Brent oil spilled into the sea. There was no cleanup required as most of the oil had burnt away. The impact on marine life was also less. Only the fishes, birds were affected.

Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

Exxon Valdez oil spill was a massive oil spill that occurred on March 24, 1989, in Prince William Sound, an inlet in the Gulf of Alaska, the U.S.

The ship was carrying 53 gallons of crude oil when it struck Bligh Reef. The impact of the collision tore the hull of the ship and 11 million gallons of oil was spilled.

It was the worst oil spill in the history of the U.S. until the Deepwater Horizon oil spill that occurred in 2010. The oil slick covered 1300 miles of the coastline and killed hundreds of seabirds, otters, seals, and whales. Exxon paid about 2 billion dollars for the cleanup and 1.8 billion dollars for habitat restoration and personal damages related to the spill.

Kolva River Spill

Kolva River is a river that is surrounded by the cities in Russia such as Perm and Usinsk, Russia. They are in the Komi Republic. Kolva River oil spill took place on August 6, 1983. The cause of this oil spill was poor maintenance of the pipeline. Oil pooled around the rupture site for eight months. It was contained by the dam, but the dam ruptured letting the oil spill into the river.

About 2 million barrels of oil spilled into the river. Nobody died but the people of the village Kolva report digestive and respiratory organ issues along with the infectious disease. It is considered one of the major oil spills in Russia.

These were the major oil spills that took place in the maritime time world over time. These all resulted in the loss of marine life, loss of human life and economic loss.

A maritime crime is defined as any criminal activity carried out at sea. These criminal activities can be directed at vessels, could violate international laws or coastal state’s sovereignty or simply be the use of sea vessels for illegal activities.

Maritime crimes are a major setback for the marine industry as almost 80% of the goods are moved by ships. They can also pose serious threats to vessels, the goods being carried by the vessels and most importantly, the lives of crew members and in some cases, passengers. This article discusses some of the various activities which are termed as crimes in the marine industry.

1) Drug trafficking

Drug trafficking or illegal drug trade involves cultivating, manufacturing, distributing and selling drugs illegally. This is one of the most common maritime crimes as most illegal drugs are transported via sea.

2) Human trafficking

Human trafficking is one of the most common and most serious crimes in the maritime world. It is illegal to travel to another country without permission from the authorities. Sometimes people can get illegally and forcefully transported to another country for practices like slavery, though this was more common in the 19th and 20th centuries.

3) Illegal carrying of weapons and artillery

It is illegal to transport weapons and artillery on ships without authorization due to the sensitivity of such goods. Engaging in this activity is a punishable offense as it endangers the lives of people on the ship as well as those around it.

4) Piracy

Piracy or maritime piracy is an act of robbery or violence by attackers on a ship with the intention of plundering the ship for valuable items and properties. The people engaging in acts of piracy are called pirates. Though now declining steadily, piracy has been frowned upon since the beginning of time and is still one of the most notorious crimes that can be committed at sea.

Read more: 20 Anti-Piracy Weapons Deployed In Ships To Fight Pirates

5) Tax evasion

Tax evasion is an illegal act of deliberately avoiding the paying of taxes. This is a very common crime in the maritime world. Many ship owners and companies try to avoid paying taxes by presenting false documents and incorrectly representing cargo material. The crime of tax evasion is one of the hardest to catch and prove and is currently on the rise.

6) Illegal fishing or sailing

Sailing or fishing in unauthorized areas at sea is considered a crime. Any ship present in an unauthorized spot for any kind of purpose is subject to punishment by law.

7) Unauthorized Entry

It is illegal for any ship to enter the marine boundaries of a country without seeking permission from the government of that nation. This is a punishable offense in all countries.

8) Smuggling of Exotic Plants and Animals

Smuggling of exotic plants and animals for wildlife smuggling is illegal for any ship without authorization. This is because wildlife smuggling involves the isolation of plants and animals. When they arrived at the destination, they may not be able to adapt to the new place. Animals may also cause infectious diseases in people.

9) Oceanic Pollution

Polluting ocean water by discharging sewage or oil in it is a punishable offense. Many countries have implemented strict policies against this. A discharge of oil in ocean waters greatly affects the coastal areas of the region.

Read more: Meaning Of Flotsam And Jetsam In Shipping

Despite strict law enforcement, maritime crimes are still very common owing to the vastness of the world’s seas and oceans. There are no concrete boundaries to waters. It is very difficult to make people not engage in maritime crimes.

Some ways of improving the maritime security of the world could be the use of satellite tracking, more cooperation between countries, more efficient monitoring of ships and ports, etc.

Finally, it should be realized that the main reason why people engage in criminal activities is because of deprivation of resources. It is high time that all the countries of the world who operated with each other in order to solve global problems like hunger poverty, illiteracy, terrorism unemployment through proper education and equal distribution of wealth and resources, population control, etc.  and bring world peace.

A lightship or a light vessel is a ship that can also operate as a lighthouse. These types of ships are used in waters that are too deep and where lighthouses cannot be constructed. Lightships play an important role in assisting other ships to navigate through waters.

A lighthouse is a structure, usually a tower or a building, which is used specifically to emit bright lights and assist maritime vessels and pilots for maritime navigational purposes during the dark.

Lightships were used more in olden times as compared to today. Nowadays due to the advancement and development of construction and architecture lightships are slowly going out of use.

The concept of a lightship has been in existence since Roman times. However, the first known modern light vessel was the scene of the Nore sandbank in England which was placed in 1734.

In the 19th century, the idea of a lightship moves towards the west. The United States of America started employing these ships in the country. This is where most of the technological advancement was made on the ship which included the redesigning and modification of the anchoring system to ensure stability during harsh climates.

In the beginning, oil and kerosene lamps were used on lightships. Later on, lights with refractive lenses were adopted.

Towards the 20th century, some light vessels were also equipped with warning bells which warned the people of danger in case of poor visibility or the presence of another vessel in the proximity. These bells could be heard at a radius of a distance of 24 kilometers from the ship.

Mooring

To keep the vessel fixed and its position fluke anchors were used. They are used even today. However, they were not sufficient to keep the ship stationary in rough seas. Now mushroom anchors that can weigh up to 4000 kgs are employed in these ships.

Read more: What Is A Mooring Buoy?

Construction Material

The hulls of lightships were previously built with wood. Now with technological advancement, wood has been replaced by damage resistant, non-corrosive, stronger and more durable material like iron or steel.

Appearance

Lightvessels at a time served another important purpose. The bodies of these ships were color-coded and easily identifiable. This helped the sailors in the oceans to confirm their location in the ocean during day time. Lightships used to operate for more than 12 hours a day, from sunset to sunrise.

These ships have been in use for more than a century and a half. They were used most towards the end of the 19th century before lighthouse towers started growing in number. This began to reduce the number of lightships.

Even today, they are declining in number and use. Currently, very few mobile lighthouses exist across the world. Due to more developed advanced navigation systems and satellite communication lightships are not required by many.

Still, we cannot overlook the kind of purpose that these ships have served in their time of operation. We should also keep in mind the kind of scientific minds possessed by people at that time who thought about the concept and actually made it into a reality.

SAL Heavy Lift announced about that it will expand its fleet by adding three heavy lift vessels that will have a lifting capacity of 800t in 2020. Those vessels will serve the clients of breakbulk and heavy-lift through SALs which is popularly known as Semi-Liner Service however it will also provide with new service options.

With the addition of the three vessels, SAL aims to makes its semi-liner service stronger. It will also make SAL one of the leading company in the heavy lift and project cargo segment.

The new vessels will also follow the traditional categorizing of vessels at SAL and thus they will join the fleet as type ‘171’.

The design of the vessels is that of type P1. They are equipped with two 400t SWL cranes with the capability of lifting about 800 tonnes is tandem along with 120t SWL crane. They will offer service to the clients along the key trade lines of SAL which is between Europe and the Far East. However, it will also offer services in the recent introduction of SAL’s Africa service.

Karsten Behrens, Director, SAL Engineering said, “The Type 171 vessels come with certain technical features such as ice class E3, equivalent to Finnish/Swedish 1A – amongst the highest in the industry.”

The ships can also operate in the Arctic region. SAL will also provide transfers on the Northeast path whenever possible.

Karsten Behrens continued, “The vessels also have very high crane pedestals which provide a much greater lifting height, in fact amongst the best in our fleet. In combination with the strong hydraulic hatch covers and large box-shaped holds with multiple tween deck configurations, it gives us an array of options when taking break bulk cargo onboard.”

Sebastian Westphal, CTO, SAL Heavy Lift added, “The vessels are, as the rest of our fleet, equipped with reliable high-quality machinery. With cranes from TTS-NMF, main engines from MAN and MacGregor hatch covers, the vessels are built with equipment with which we have tremendous experience. Despite obvious design differences with our other vessels the Type 171 will be reliable work tools in our fleet and will add value.”

The fleet of SAL is getting strong at a time when a large part of its current fleet is engaged in projects related to renewable and oil & gas.

Dr. Martin Harren, CEO, SAL Heavy Lift said, “I am very happy that we have been able to add these vessels to our heavy lift fleet. This way SAL will be able to service clients who may at times look for ships that can take larger volumes of cargo in combination with heavy lift items. With SAL Engineering providing the engineering solutions and our SAL crew manning the vessels, we continue to offer our well-known SAL quality and know-how, but on a larger scale – something that I am sure clients, both new and existing, will come to appreciate.”

The vessels that are scheduled to join the join the SAL fleet in Q1 2020 are “MV Hanna”, “MV Klara” and “MV Lisa”. The names of these vessels represent the family members of the former owner, Heino Winter Group that will be handling the technical ship management of these vessels.

Dr. Martin Harren concludes: “We have a long-lasting relation with the Winter family, and I am happy to see their continued involvement with these three ‘large ladies’.”

The other details and information about the vessels like the specific take over dates can be found on the website of SAL.

  Reference: SAL

The perfect solution for ocean transport has been offered by AAL Bangkok for one of the leading yacht transport and boat shipping company which represents a particular group of private owners who want a Caribbean climate for their pleasure cruising this winter.

A compiled cargo of 12 floating cargo was loaded on the special heavy lift S-Class vessel of AAL in Genoa, Italy. It was then transported successfully to the Virgin Islands and Port Everglades.

The 3,500m2 cargo had a 51-meter superyacht that weighted 400t, which proved short work for the Bangkok’s heavy-lift cranes and their combined 700t max lift.

The Chartering Manager of AAL, Pavao Kopic, said that because of the cargo’s nature and value, AAL has been chosen by the customers for it’s reliable track record and the high lifting capability and cargo intake volume of the S-Class fleet.

The expanding Europe-US service of AAL which has the options of multiple tonnage and regular sailings was used for the transportation of the cargo.

  Reference: AAL