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The destructive nature of tsunami was clearly illustrated by two large events in the early 21st century: the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (with more than 225 000 fatalities and almost 10 billion dollars in damage) and the 2011 Tohoku tsunami in Japan (with more than 19 800 fatalities and 210 billion dollars in damage). Such events cause massive casualties, economic losses, and damages to critical infrastructure, but they are also infrequent, with recurrence times typically ranging from hundreds to thousands of years. Therefore, historical records often do not include events as destructive as those we need to be prepared for. As a result, many coastal communities are not always well prepared for such large tsunamis and may underestimate the hazard, as demonstrated in the above mentioned events.

Tsunami hazard models that provide probabilities of infrequent tsunamis are necessary because many regions exposed to tsunamis have little memory of past events. Making assumptions on future tsunami sources based on our best scientific knowledge and modeling the ensuing tsunamis are therefore an initial and essential component of comprehensive disaster risk management strategies that can complement the sparse historical record. Simulations of potential tsunamis and subsequent vulnerability and risk assessments play a key role in the design of risk reduction measures for both the pre- and post-event stages, such as education and raising risk awareness, building requirements, evacuation planning, drills, emergency plans, potential damage analysis, physical mitigation measures, and financial instruments to manage the risks posed by rare, destructive tsunami events.

In the last decade there has been a growing effort to understand tsunami hazard and risk at local, regional, and global scales, with a sequence of increasingly elaborate global tsunami hazard and risk studies, conducted in part through the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) biennial Global Assessment Reports (2009, 2011, 2013, and 2015). Most recent iterations of this work incorporate a fully probabilistic approach and have global coverage for the hazard, while further developments are ongoing (Figure 1, above). The results of the 2015 assessment, both for hazard and physical risk, in terms of economic losses, are openly and freely available to the public at risk.preventionweb.net.

Because of the simplifications necessary when working at the global scale, the current global tsunami-hazard and risk models are not recommended for detailed local-scale planning. However, they can give a first-pass estimate of the global distribution of tsunami hazard, which can help to identify exposed regions where in many cases no hazard information previously existed and hence raise the awareness of communities potentially affected. The global models can also be used to help prioritize sites for local scale assessment, to compare the tsunami hazard and risk with those associated to other types of natural hazards, and to provide input as well as useful cross-checks of more detailed studies.

To further improve the quality and to standardize tsunami hazard and risk models, tsunami scientists affiliated to research and academic organizations around the globe have recently convened around a new and scientifically/administratively ambitious initiative called the Global Tsunami Model (GTM). The GTM overall vision and goals are to collaboratively achieve a thorough understanding of the tsunami hazard and risk, together with the processes that drive them. Data, software and standards developed by GTM can be used to underpin and facilitate national and local-scale tsunami hazard and risk assessments. These goals are closely related to the priorities included in the Sendai Framework of Disaster Risk Reduction about understanding disaster risk.

The recent magnitude 7.1 earthquake and subsequent tsunami warning in northern New Zealand reminds us that tsunamis are unpredictable and can strike any time.

If you live in a tsunami risk zone then you’re probably aware of what to do when a tsunami strikes. But if you’re a traveller or a visitor from somewhere not used to such events, how can you prepare yourself?

Since the devastating Sumatra earthquake and tsunami of December 2004, it has been recognised that there is risk of tsunami along all coastlines.

A tsunami can strike any coast at any time and we can’t predict exactly when or where they will occur.  

Tsunamis are most often caused by undersea earthquakes but they can also be caused by submarine landslides or volcanic eruptions.

A tsunami can move as fast as a jet plane across the open ocean and can smash into land with waves as high as 20 metres.

The water may wash inland for several kilometres in flat lying areas, and can move up streams and rivers, picking up everything in its path.

Waves may continue to strike the shoreline for many hours, and dangerous currents can continue for days following the event.

Although a tsunami can’t be prevented, its impact can be lessened when communities understand the risks, receive timely warnings and know how to respond.

Understanding the level of risk for your area is the first step towards being prepared. If you are travelling, look up the national disaster management centre or emergency response agency for your destination.  

Natural and official warnings

Warning messages about tsunamis can come from several sources.

Natural warnings include feeling a strong earthquake, seeing a sudden rise or fall in sea level, or hearing a loud and unusual noise from the sea. In many cases this means a tsunami could arrive in minutes and it is important to act quickly and not wait for an official warning.

Official warnings are distributed by local authorities such as police, civil defence or local councils. Warning messages are often circulated through media channels including television, radio and the internet.

Tourist areas may also have sirens along some beaches.

What is important to note is that each country, and in many cases each local area, will have a different warning system. So when you travel somewhere new, do not assume it will have a system that is similar to what you are used to from other places you have travelled, or at home.

If you receive an official warning, act quickly and follow the instructions to move to higher ground.  

There are a number of free and subscriber services for tsunami warnings, but don’t rely on SMS or email warning services. During an earthquake or tsunami these services often become overwhelmed and messages don’t get through.

Being prepared

Before you travel, find out what you can about the tsunami risk in the area you are visiting.

Subscribe to official travel advice from your government, if available. Organise comprehensive travel insurance and check that you are covered for natural disasters such as tsunami.

On arrival, perhaps as you check into your hotel, ask your host about how tsunami warnings are disseminated and where the tsunami evacuation routes are.

Find out where the nearest high ground is (at least 20 metres above sea level) and work out how you get there. If there is no high ground nearby, find out if there are established vertical evacuation routes. These are usually tall, concrete-reinforced buildings with at least four storeys.  

During a tsunami

Stay out of the water and away from beaches and waterways. Never go to the shore to watch the tsunami. If you can see it, you are too close to escape.

Use TV, radio or internet to get updates on the situation, but try to keep phone lines clear for use by emergency personnel.

Follow instructions from local officials to move to higher ground or evacuate into a tall building. Evacuate on foot or by bike and drive only if essential. Roads tend to become gridlocked during a tsunami emergency, making it more difficult for the emergency response teams to access the area.

Stay away from at-risk areas until the all clear is given. The first tsunami wave may not be the last or the largest, and the waves may be more than an hour apart.  

After a tsunami

Do not return to the evacuation zones until advised by authorities, even if you can’t see any damage. Be aware that there may be extensive earthquake or flood damage and buildings may not be safe.

Look out for broken power lines and other dangers and stay away from beaches and waterways.

If you are overseas, then as soon as you are able, contact your local embassy, High Commission or consulate in case family and friends are trying to find you. Stay informed through conventional or social media if phone lines are overwhelmed.

We can’t predict or prevent tsunamis, but the good news is that you can improve your chances of staying safe by understanding the risk, being prepared and acting quickly when disaster strikes.

An effective tsunami early warning system is achieved when all persons, especially in vulnerable costal communities are prepared and respond appropriately and in a timely manner upon recognition that a potential destructive tsunami (local or regional) may be approaching.  Understanding what this means, and when and how to act when a tsunami might come, covers actions at the critical last mile in the tsunami warning chain.  Building that awareness needs to happen regularly and continuously in communities as we don’t know when and where the next dangerous tsunami will occur.

What is Awareness and how do we build awareness?

This summary seeks to be representative of how many countries are developing and carrying out awareness-building programmes. There is no one best approach or practice, and beyond some very basic key information that can be conveyed in many ways, there is no one best awareness publication or educational textbook.

Often, the key organizations involved in developing and disseminating these materials are the stakeholders involved in the end-to-end tsunami warning process, namely the Tsunami Warning Center (TWC) and Disaster Management Office (DMO ). In many countries, the DMO serves as the lead agency for public awareness and preparedness, but TWCs, as the organization responsible for the scientific evaluation of the tsunami (and earthquake threat), often work closely or share the responsibility with the DMO.

Awareness and education materials generally include basic topics, such as:

•        Tsunami Science and Hazards 


•         Historical tsunami events and their impacts 


•         Tsunami Warning System -modes of dissemination, timing, and messages 


•         Tsunami Emergency Response System – safety actions such as evacuation carried out, timing, services available 


•         Tsunami Safety Rules (for people, on evacuation, use of structures/infrastructure, in boats and 
harbors, etc)


In developing an awareness and education plan, important strategies include: 


•         Traditional knowledge. This can be a powerful tool in community preparedness. Although it may be the most effective means in a more traditional / rural / remote community, in general, traditional knowledge alone will not be enough to assure an effective response to early warning systems that are developing in countries. Additional information on early warning alerts, and education on response and safe evacuation and return are needed. 


•         Community focus. Each country will have different priority issues related to education and awareness so that in general, education and awareness products should be tailored to the community-specific needs (hazards, geography, demographics, cultural/religious/social, etc). 


•         Multi-faceted approach. To be effective, materials need to answer the questions of the target audience simply and clearly. These can be achieved through a variety of formal and informal education, awareness-building and preparedness activities, or programmes. 


•         Coordination and collaboration. Working together and coordination between the different agencies involved is essential. Involvement and commitment by all stakeholders will help to ensure sustainability. 


•         Sustainability through public policy. A tsunami education and awareness programme that is able to sustain itself over generations can be highly effective, and may be perhaps the only feasible (funded) mitigation for localities where tsunamis are infrequent.

Successful programmes take into account at least the following themes:

•         Culture - Sensitivity to develop understanding and approaches that are built and based on local culture, beliefs, and practices 


•         Locality -Where possible and resources available, use of local context and language effectively to assure clear understanding and good communication 


•         Diversity – Knowledge on the structure of the community and society to take advantage of its strengths. 


Education and preparedness programmes should at least address the following objectives:

•         Increase people’s understanding of why tsunamis happen and its nature. 


•         Raise awareness on the important role of communities in preparedness and mitigation 


•         Build capacity in planning and preparing to minimize the tsunami impact. 


•         Create empowerment and encourage communities to become more self-reliant. 


•         Focus on collective action instead of individual action.

Some formats for education materials are:

Books; Teaching Materials; Booklets leaflets, flyers; News Letters; Comics; Toys & Games; Video, CD / DVD Rom; Posters, Stickers. 


Some methods of educating are (outside classes that are part of school education):

Face-to-face teachings; Training for Trainers; Community Events and Awareness Days; Memorials, Assemblies & Special Meetings; Drills and exercises; Focus events for special needs communities (disabled, elderly, women and children); Youth Group activities. 


Some formats building public awareness are:

Booklets, leaflets, flyers; Posters; Stickers; Special interest stories – survivors, events; Roadside signboards; Public service announcements and Media; Advertisements (such as in telephone books). 


Some methods of conveying information to the public are:

Community Meetings and Workshops; Assemblies & Special Event Meetings; Toys & Games; Drills, Simulations, and Exercises; Publications, Printed and electronic media; Exhibitions; Fairs, booths, and window displays; Museums and videos to Commemorate Disaster 


Over the last five years, mobile and electronic technologies have become a commonplace medium for quickly and widely sharing information. Social media networks, such as Facebook and Twitter, and video sharing through YouTube, are popular and accepted around the world. As such, governments and practitioners should develop ways to communicate through these mechanisms. In this case, vital safety information should be short, concise, and actionable, and additionally visually interesting to hold the public’s attention. 


Every tsunami awareness reminder, however small, with time, is a payment toward saving life when the next tsunami attacks. Building awareness is relatively simple – it starts with an interest by one person, but can groundswell into communities and stretch over coastlines.  There is no right way, no wrong way –- but if we prepare, nobody should die in the next tsunami.  

History reminds us of the recurring danger of tsunamis, and past catastrophes share their lessons to enable us to better mitigate tsunami impacts and the loss of life. People remember, and elders pass down their tsunami safety maxims, stories, and songs through generations, thus embedding basic preparedness (what is a tsunami, how will I know it is coming, and what do I do) from childhood.  Schools add knowledge and rigor on the science of tsunamis, while also building decision-making skills to enable effective emergency response and responsible development planning.

Since 1975, there have been 43 deadly tsunamis, with nearly 70% in the Pacific and its marginal seas. Over history (1610 BC to AD 2016), there have been 1235 confirmed tsunamis, of which 249 have been deadly. 76% occurred in the Pacific Ocean and its marginal seas.  87% of the tsunamis were generated by earthquakes. Tsunamis are blind to politics and borders, wreaking havoc locally and also crossing ocean basins with deadly waves that can reach 40 m high and flood six km inland.  Globally, 90% of the casualties were from local tsunamis that attacked in minutes.

It is for especially local tsunamis that Education, Awareness, and Preparedness for evacuation is the #1 priority.  The earthquake’s shaking is your natural Tsunami Warning sign – heed it and immediately head inland to higher ground because a tsunami might come.  Don’t wait for a Tsunami Warning to be issued, or sirens to sound because it might be too late or never come.

Tsunamis have no seasons and we don't know when the next big one will be, nor where it will occur.  So, we must always be prepared …

The project implemented in the high Andean of Peru in the Chocos district reduced the disaster damage infrastructures among education facilities; it includes the process of resilience developing. The population learned about how they prevent disasters. The first step of work consisted in the sensitizing and training process related to land sanitation and disaster prevention issues the population focused as a principal problem to solve in the community.

The trained people learned about the importance to make the community risk mapping. During the walking in the community identified the vulnerability problems existent. It was an important step of the training that the trained people found out to advocate for solutions to the local and state authorities. The drawing of a risk mapping with all the problems found becomes a tool.

The project focused in the training (theory and practice). The training consisted in the retrofit of the school that suffered of cracks due to the earthquake of 2007 in Peru that represented a risk for the children. Women and men were trained and learned about how to improve the walls of the school using the mud brick units and the geomesh as reinforcement element in the seismic construction.

The children from the school were included in all the process of the project with the training process about how to make a safe construction using the geomesh on the walls as reinforcement element.  The training was important due to the children disseminate the safe construction in their homes and convince their parents to improve their homes to live safe. The retrofit of the school was a model to disseminate the seismic and resistant construction in the housing area and other buildings in the community and at the local level. 

The training consisted in the production of mud brick reinforced units to replace the adobes or mud bricks that presented cracks. Also the trained people learnt how to improve the old construction using a seismic and resistant construction technology. The San Cristobal de Chocos School finally was retrofitted and the children will be able to study in safe conditions.  

After the training finished the people elected a management committee to advocate the state and local authorities for their rights. The organization of a public event (community strategy) was approved by the trained people and invited the Mayors of Chocos and the districts around, the Housing Ministry representatives, the Lima Region Provinces officials, the population, the students of Stanford University from USA, The students of the Catholic University, the Geo Hazards International representatives, Estrategia NGO representatives from Peru.

The population got important results after the public event and the project finished. The population from Chocos with the supporting of the Housing Ministry got the land titling from the state organization, Cofopri, The Mayor of the Chocos Municipality approved the land sanitation of the community and also approved a Municipal Orderly to allow the population to demolish the collapsed buildings. The Mayor of Chocos after get trained started to organize a group of 5 Mayors from districts located around Chocos district to demand the Lima Provinces Region for the construction of the main road and they got this supporting. This project was presented in the Parliament (Housing Committee) as a successful program to disseminate at the national level.

Luz Maria Sanchez Hurtado  is General Director of the NGO Estrategia, and an  advocate for UNISDR’s Making Cities Resilient campaign.     Photos are courtesy of Geo Hazards International, San Francisco, USA.   

AN URBAN HUB AT RISK

Makati City, located at the heart of Metro Manila, is home to the Philippines’ business and economic district. The City’s population rises dramatically from 529,039 at nighttime to 3.1 to 4.2 million during daytime as a robust number of professionals flock the city for work. Due to its proximity to the West Valley Fault, it is susceptible to earthquake hazards such as ground shaking, liquefaction, ground rupture, landslides and fires. According to the Greater Metro Manila Area Risk Analysis Project (GMMA-RAP), Makati will have an estimated 1,427 fatalities, 200,000 individuals displaced, 4 to 6 million worth of infrastructure damaged, and roughly 200 million in economic loss in the event of a 7.2 magnitude earthquake.

Preparations for the “The Big One” indubitably need to involve all members of the society. No less than the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) calls for an all-of-society engagement and partnership to achieve resilience.

Even prior to the SFDRR, the City Government of Makati has been implementing multi-stakeholder measures across the four DRR thematic areas which contribute to achieving reduction in global disaster mortality including, but not limited to, the following: 

A. The use of the different tools of the UNISDR’s Making Cities Resilient Campaign (Local Government Self-Assessment Tool, Disaster Resilience Scorecard, and Local/Urban Indicators) made the City planners realize the importance of pursuing resilient urban development and design using historical and science-based information. Results of assessment were incorporated in the updating of the Makati Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) Plan.

B. Regular earthquake drills in communities, schools, and the central business district are conducted. Businesses, government offices, schools, and residents of the City participate in the annual observance of the National Simultaneous Earthquake Drill and Metro Manila Shake Drill.

C. The City believes in generational investment. Every man, woman, or child should be capacitated with survival, coping, and recovery skills to prepare them for a major earthquake event and empower them to help others to do the same. Disaster preparedness and survival skills training has recently been incorporated into the Senior High School Program of the University of Makati. Some 8,000 senior students have undergone basic disaster preparedness and survival courses aimed at familiarizing each of them with household level survival planning as well as the Barangay DRRM system. In 2020, it is expected that every household will have at least one person able to manage disasters and help everyone else.

D. After series of consultations and refinement, the Makati Earthquake Contingency Plan was finalized. This science-based, scenario-specific, time-bound response plan for a 7.2 magnitude earthquake was envisioned to reduce mortality as it lays down sectoral protocols implemented through a unified system. In implementing these measures, Makati acknowledges that understanding risks and developing shared, local information on hazards, risks, and potential disaster losses is critical to making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable, as per Sustainable Development Goal 11. Hence, the unpredictable nature of “The Big One” thought to be as daunting as studies assume it would be, may just be a beaten goliath to a city and citizenry armed and prepared for the worst.

Dong Tay Hai village in Viet Nam, with its 350 households and 1,300 residents, lies next to the sea. Annually, it is affected directly by three to four typhoons and tropical depressions, on average. The villagers depend on fishing and paddy rice cultivation. Their fishing vessels are simple motor-driven bamboo rafts, while their farmland is very small and affected by saline intrusion.

Dong Tay Hai Rapid Response Team (RRT) was one of 63 set up at the end of 2011, under the support of the Coastal Areas of Thanh Hoa Province Resilient to Natural Disasters (CATREND) project. Members of the RRTs are trained and equipped for first aid and rescue, climate change and Community-based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) Planning, and exercise regularly.

“My family has been living here for many generations. We usually respond to natural disasters based on our experience. This is the first time that we’ve been trained and practiced in first aid, rescue and CBDRM planning,” said Mr. Nguyen Trong Hoi, a RRT member at Dong Tay Hai.

When storm No.10 hit the north of Viet Nam in October 2013, the ship NĐ-1533, which was carrying five people and 1,000 tons of cement from Nam Dinh province, went adrift and was wrecked off Hoang Thanh commune.

Receiving information about the ship, the Dong Tay Hai RRT took first aid and rescue equipment and rowed out to save the sailors onboard. Because of high waves and strong wind, the RRT’s motor raft could not come up close to the ship, so the team members had to swim a hundred meters. They applied their first aid and rescue skills and saved the five sailors from drowning.

Mr. Nguyen Dinh Tuy, Vice Chairperson of Hoang Hoa People’s Committee, Head of CATREND project management of Hoang Hoa district was on the scene.

“I’m very happy because our RRT has rescued five sailors from drowning. I do not know what would have happened if the RRT came late or if the members were not trained and equipped,” he said, praising the rescuers for their skill and courage. In recognition, he awarded the RRT a 500,000- VND cash bonus for its live-saving efforts.

“In the past, we felt anxious when the storm hit our village, we did not know to do anything except follow some instructions from local government but now we are more active and confident in preparing and responding to storm,” said Mr. Trieu Dinh Duyen, leader of Dong Tay Hai's RRT.

When Indonesia’s Mount Merapi volcano erupted on 26 October 2010, officials and members of the community-based action team (CBAT) in Wonodoyo village, Boyolali district, sounded the long sirens to warn residents of the danger.

At the time, the Integrated Community Based Risk Reduction (ICBRR) program had just started its implementation and the community had not taken part in disaster preparedness simulation yet. Therefore, they were unaware on the siren’s meaning.

Despite the community’s lack of response to the siren, the head of the village and the CBAT commander took immediate action. They utilized the early warning system although they had just learned about its function. As the community had not been familiarized with standard evacuation procedures, the village officials and CBAT faced difficulties mobilizing them. Some of them even refused to leave their homes. “Dust!” was their reason. However, the CBAT members persistently persuaded the residents to leave.

The sirens continued to wail, up to a point that two of them broke down. “Even when Merapi erupts, the community will not react much. They are mostly passive. This kind of reaction always happens, like a tradition,” Slamet Haryanto, ICBRR field coordinator in Boyolali district said.

The community of Cluntang village, Boyolali district is much more responsive. They had participated in a disaster simulation on 19 October 2010, just a week before the volcano erupted, which was very useful in the situation. The villagers immediately understood what to do when the sirens were sounded, the evacuation process was smooth, and they knew the location of the assembly point. Even the CBAT members were also well-prepared, since it had only been a week since the simulation. The procedures for evacuation and first aid were still fresh in their minds.

The bottom line is that simulation training makes mobilization much easier.

The conditions at Kemiren and Kaliurang villages were even more different. These both villages are in the areas most vulnerable to the effects of an eruption, since they are located only 7 kilometres from the crater, and being in the pathway of the lava flow, are exposed to hot ash and volcanic dust.

When the volcanic activities increased, the CBAT did not continuously tell the community the latest information. This helped keep the community calm and organized. Information from the Volcanology Agency was relayed to the village and the CBAT commander, and then shared with the community. CBAT members sent alert messages to the residents through mobile phones or HT radio, and visited the people one by one afterwards.

Once Merapi erupted, the volunteers helped evacuate the community. The people were immediately directed towards the assembly point, and onwards to district temporary shelters, until all of them could be evacuated to a safe location in the city. The CBAT and PMI volunteers, putting their own safety at risk, together with the village officials divided up the responsibility to carry out the evacuation, prepare the location of the shelters, arrange food for the displaced and sweep the area.

The people from both villages have been living with the hazards of Merapi for years and the ICBRR program is nothing new for them. As a result of its implementation, they were more cooperative and responded positively to the CBAT’s direction during the emergency period.

The Indonesian Red Cross ICBRR program, supported by the Danish Red Cross and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, had only been partially implemented at the time of the eruption. CBAT members had been recruited, and had been trained in 11 districts. They had undergone socialization programs in which they were given information on hazards from Merapi. Although the program cycle had not been completed, the CBAT members in four villages on the slope of the volcano were well prepared. They responded quickly and did their best to keep the villagers safe.

The volcanic activities of Merapi may come and go, and will always impact the people living at its foot. Residents, together with their CBATs, are now much more prepared - and this will certainly change their response in the event of a new eruption.