#sextesting

Sex is not a binary. Here’s a fascinating report by Vox on the recent difficulties of trying to put sex into two boxes by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF).

The report features Caster Semenya, who has been in the news this year (2019) for court issues around her sex and whether of not she’s allowed to compete. She’s a gold medalist from the Rio Olympics. She has naturally high testosterone. When Michael Phelps (swimmer) has naturally size 14 feet, he’s admired.

But a woman with naturally high testosterone is brought to court.

There are many factors that contribute to performance- no reason to single testosterone out as the defining factor.  It’s just IAAF’s most recent way to determine sex. 

The video has an excellent history of women in the Olympics. There have been suspicions around female athletes for a long time. And when the testing began, they would change it to make it more strict and harder to pass.

1966: Polish athlete Klobukowska had to submit to a “nude parade” where physicians examined her genitals to confirm she was a women. 

1967: Klobukowska tested again, this time looking at her chromosomes. She failed.

We’re taught that male and female is a simple matter of xx and xy hormones. But, it’s actually more complicated. There’s a lot of options in the middle. 

DSD- differences of sexual development, intersex. Many people can reach sexual maturity without ever knowing they have a DSD.

In 201, the IAAF switched to testestorone testing.

Dutee Chand, an Indian athlete with naturally high testosterone, failed the test and was banned. She appealed the decision and won, because IAAF didn’t provide scientific evidence for linking testosterone and performance. But, then IAAF conducted a study that supported their views. They lowered the testosterone level requirements even more, leading to Semenya’s ban in 2019. 

The ban has a way out: “She’ll have to take drugs to lower her testosterone levels in order to complete.”

Sementa isn’t interested in that option. “I’d rather just be natural, you know, be who I am. I was born like this. I don’t want any changes.” She has also appealed and won, but the fight continues. 

(It’s fascinating to me how the same people who don’t want to allow transgender people to take hormonal medication also want to force someone cisgender who doesn’t fit their expectations to take the same medication.)

Other top winners from the Rio Olympics are under the same discrimination. 

Only athletes who look “suspicious” need to be tested. It depends on appearance… Non-white athletes from the global south are being selected because they don’t fit someone’s stereotype of what a woman looks like. So, racism is an obvious factor here. 

Caster Semenya has been wrongly reported as transgender- she isn’t. (She was assigned female at birth and still identifies as female.)

“This is rooted in sex and athletic official’s inability to find a criteria that will fairly divide athletes into the two categories of men and women.” (Appearance draws the line at one location, chromosomes draw the line somewhere else, testosterone draws the line somewhere else…)

Caster Semenya, a South African runner, had her gender questioned after winning an international medal at the 2009 world championships. Before this event, Caster's gender has never been scrutinized by athletic committees. However, after she defeated athletes of other wealthier nationalities, her victory and character began to be criticized by the IAAF. The IAAF then decided to punish Caster for a perceived natural advantage that she had due to her unnaturally high levels of testosterone. The idea of "natural" being a concept created and used by the IAAF to discredit Casters testosterone levels. An advantage that has not been scientifically linked to faster finishing times in races. Media then proceeded to criticize the resulting banishment of Caster from competitions due to her androgynous gender. After being declared "non-female" in the eyes of the world, her entire livelihood was destroyed. She was not only prohibited from competing as a runner, but Caster's whole identity came under humiliating scrutiny.

Scientific institutions declaring someone as not entirely female, nor male, but as something outside these binary concepts would lead to exclusivity felt by that person. Since tests such as these are backed by empirical evidence, they may even lead to someone questioning themselves. Such mental hurdles, however, would have to be overcome by Caster rather quickly as the IAAF’s banning was reversed only a year after the fact. This reinstatement propelled her sex-scandal back into the limelight most likely deteriorating her already damaged image. She managed to overcome these emotions though and quickly returned to winning, achieving two Olympic gold medals. This redemption, however, could not be maintained as the IAAF intervened again in 2018. They began forcing athletes with hyper-androgenized attributes who ran in the 400m, 800m, and 1500m races to lower their natural testosterone levels.

Sex testing again being addressed after Caster defeated more privileged athletes in these three specific categories reveals how the IAAF was explicitly attempting to control her. In the context of her first victory, it is not to hard to see why the IAAF chose to steal it from her. With Germany being so closely related to apartheid South Africa, it is not implausible to deduce that the city in which she won the medal, Berlin, had something to do with her sex testing. Then, nine years after her first sex test Caster's continual winning of these competitions in Europe further exasperated colonialist attitudes forcing the IAAF to re-institute such discriminatory restrictions on testosterone. I propose that the initial and subsequent questioning of Casters sex arose out of racist views, forcing her to undergo derogatory sex testing. Debilitating examinations that were not a far cry from the invasive and predatory sex testing of the ’30s where female athletes, after having their gender questioned, were forced into being analyzed by a panel of doctors.

Conversely, during this period of Casters public shamming no tests were performed on male athletes with testosterone levels considered too low, or having too high a level of estrogen; instead, the IAAF choose to target underprivileged people who could not fight back. An example of this bias towards the oppressed is evident in the sex testing of Dutee Chand. Chand, an Indian runner that had never trained professionally and lived below the poverty line, began defeating her less impoverished competition. Her biological sex and testosterone levels were, similarly to Caster, called into question after this fact. Barring her from competition, only to then reverse the action after media pointed out the disqualifications hypocrisy. The hypocrisy that shows how a person has never been unable to perform in these competitions for having broader shoulders or longer legs than what the IAAF defines as "normal." These exiles show that the IAAF and IOC, a group that upholds the IAAF’s decisions, are attempting to relate one’s sex to societies socially constructed idea of gender. Because Caster does not fit into the preconceived notion of "female," being of a different race, height and build than her contemporaries, she is therefore attacked for her attributes.

Whereas Caster is a female as much as anyone else, these committees are attempting to enforce a socially constructed idea of femininity on her, one that disregards intersex characteristics. Thus by doing so, they are granting an unearned privilege to others who fit within this category. This privilege ironically bestows a significant advantage to those the IAAF and IOC are trying to protect producing an uneven playing field, where athletes with higher levels of testosterone are targeted and handicapped for a natural advantage. Caster's sex has nothing to do with her gender so why exactly are they relating these two together if not for means of discrimination. Could it also be that Caster Semenya is a lesbian, defying other societal notions of femininity that athletic committees are trying to uphold? I posit then that Caster’s oppression relates to the feminist struggle as she is being attacked and ostracized for being a woman, yet not fitting into the restrictive category of societal gendered norms. Norms that are used to segregate the noticeably different and maintain power over of them. Thereby, to advance the position of woman-hood one has to realize the oppressive conditions sex testing keeps over female athletes and then correlate this oppression to the various discrimination all women face. Sex testing being a different side of the same coin, that those in control use to define and categorize women to conform to their idealized society.

How about we as a society, stop enforcing our ideas of gender on people and therefore recognize how such restrictive categorizations only serve to hurt others. Maybe we can all come together, acknowledging our differences and celebrate them. Possibly singing some songs as well. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f8J9WssSj7Q

Reading referenced- How the Practice of Sex-Testing Targets Female Olympic Athletes, by: Kate Allen

Definitions

Testosterone - The primary male sex hormone

Estrogen - The primary female sex hormone

Gender - Social expectations assigned to one’s sex

Sex - Binary assignment of “male” or “female” onto infants due to biological characteristics

Apartheid - Racial segregation institutionalized by the South African government

IAAF - International Association of Athletics Federations 

Female athletes ask themselves this question throughout the process of sex- testing, distributed by the International Olympic Committee. “The IOC has informally encouraged sex-testing since the 1936 Olympics, and formally since the 1968 Games. At first there was the visual exam, where female athletes had their genitals inspected by “qualified” experts to ensure they were all indeed female”. (Forsyth, 2016). Only female athletes have to partake in a sex test, as being a being female and good at sport is abnormal in society.

As quoted by Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics, “I do not approve of the participation of women in the public competition. In the Olympic Games, their primary role should be to crown the victors”. (Naimark, 2014). Opinions like this are the reason why sex testing occurred in the first place. Big sport organisations attempted to exclude women whose performances were above expectations by establishing gender verifications, which suspected them of fraud. (Müller, 2016). Successful female athletes were suspected of not being a woman, for the simple reason of performing above their gender expectations at sport.

For women to participate in the Olympic Games they must fall within the IOC’s prescribed range. “People who are chromosomally XX and living as legal women should compete as female Olympic athletics, no matter what their bodies look like and no matter their testosterone levels”. (Schaffer, 2012). So, if a woman’s test results come back XY, (the normal makeup for a man) they are unable to compete in the Olympic Games as a female athlete. However, those men who are tested XX (the normal makeup for a woman) can still participate as a male athlete. Why is this the case?

“The IOC forged on, saying all this testosterone gives these females an unfair advantage over other females whose testosterone levels aren’t as high”. (Forsyth, 2016). Thus, we have established that testosterone is associated with performance enhancement and it is particularly male, which ties nicely with the society views on women on average performs less well than men. Yet, it is fair for men with low natural levels of testosterone to compete against men with high levels? Nevertheless, why is this only an issue for female athletes? In addition, those who do not fall within the IOC prescribed range face extreme consequences e.g. disqualification.

Spanish hurdler Maria José Martínez-Patiño was a growing successful athlete in women’s track and field events, with visions of competing in the Olympic Games. In 1985, her visions were no longer achievable as a discovery had be made that she had a Y chromosome, which resulted in her being disqualified from competing with women. (Sánchez, Martínez-Patiño and Vilain, 2013). “I was born and raised in northern Spain. I had the life of a normal girl, expect that I had an affinity for running and jumping”. (Martínez-Patiño, 2005). 2 months after failing the sex-test, doctors came to the conclusion that she had a complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS), which prevented her body from responding correctly to testosterone and caused her to develop as a woman. (Bardin, 2012). This diagnose is the reason why her test results came back XY. After 3 years of being exposed to intense medical and media scrutiny, Maria diagnoses was stated as ‘incapable of benefiting from the presence of the Y chromosome’, therefore in 1988,  she was given her license back to run again as a woman. Just because a woman has a masculine physique and/or are good at their chosen sport, does this mean they are not female enough to be a woman in sporting society?

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References:

Forsyth, J. (2016). Olympic Sex-Testing Is Violence Against Women. [Online] Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/janice-forsyth/olympic-sex-testing_b_11310150.html [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

Martínez-Patiño, M. (2005). Personal Account: A woman tried and tested. The Lancet, 366, p.S38.

Müller, M. (2016). Constructing Gender Incommensurability in Competitive Sport: Sex/Gender Testing and the New Regulations on Female Hyperandrogenism. Human Studies, 39(3), pp.405-431.

Naimark, M. (2014). Sex Verification in Women’s Sports Is Humiliating and Unnecessary. [Online] Available at: http://www.slate.com/blogs/outward/2014/07/31/sex_verification_in_sports_why_is_competing_as_a_woman_all_about_testosterone.html [Accessed 7 Nov. 2017].

Sánchez, F., Martínez-Patiño, M. and Vilain, E. (2013). The New Policy on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes is Not About “Sex Testing”. Journal of Sex Research, 50(2), pp.112-115.

The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) introduced the one of many sex tests back in 1966, with the aim of ending suspicions concerning the sex of particular female athletes (Bohuon and Rodriquez, 2016). The aim of the humiliating and replaceable process was to identify which athletes are “real women” and who are not acceptable to the IAAF’s ideology and deemed as too masculine for women’s sport (Bohuon and Rodriquez, 2016).  

After several revised and decreed visions of the test, in 2011 and 2012 the IAAF and International Olympic Committee (IOC) both created controversial policies that measure the amount of natural testosterone in professional female athletes (Karkazis and Jordan-Young, 2015). Basically, if a female competitor has more natural testosterone (T) than what is classified as the “normal” level for women or show male characteristics, two outrageous options are available (Karkazis and Jordan-Young, 2015 and Newbould, 2015). First women must lower their testosterone level through surgery or antiandrogens alternatively stop competing (Karkazis and Jordan-Young, 2015 and Newbould, 2015).

On the other hand, the reasoning for the tests being so debateable is that measuring testosterone can be a real problem due to the fact that testosterone is a liquid meaning that the amount of T within the body can change. For example, intense resistance training and short duration exercise are associated with increased T levels (Karkazis and Jordan-Young, 2015).

With this, athletes could argue the reasoning for the naturally high T result is just a bioproduct of their demanding training timetable, or even a benefit of their training, as athletes train to improve and give themselves the highest possible change of winning. In addition, could we question the timing of the tests, as women with high levels of natural T are usually made aware through a doping test which are performed after competition.

Moving on, sex testing is not just a scientific issue but also a taboo topic around social and ethic concern (Dworkin, and Cookey, 2012). As Vertinsky, et al (2013) argues that female athletes who have “failed” sex tests become a target for public scrutiny and ridicule, sporting achievements removed, loss of sponsorship, scholarships and breakdowns of relationships and social support networks.

In the case of Caster Semenya the statement above is completely accurate, as Elisa Cusma Piccione an Italian runner who finished 6th in the 800-meter final of the Berlin World Athletic Championships in 2009 (Caster Sementya finished 1st), stated that “these kind of people should not run with us. For me, she is not a woman. She’s a man” (Camporesi and Maugeri, 2016:47). Piccione, clearly demonstrates an uneducated negative view, the wording of the statement “these kinds of people” indicates that she feels Sementya is no longer worthy of a title and does not warrant a place within society.

Undoubtedly, the public mockery and exclusion did not stop there, but fuelled by the media no sensitivity was applied to the situation. Headlines consisted of “women, man or little bit of both” and her sex up for public debate for the world to give opinions who have little knowledge of the case. Understandably, this caused Semenya great stress as Leonard Chuene, the head of South African athletics said “she is trembling about the media. She cannot understand why she is being treated like this” (Smith, 2009).

Finally, does fair sport competition require athletes to be equal in very factor of their performance, as no regards for natural talents have been applied here and how can something which is natural to classified as ‘inequality’ (Vertinsky, et al 2013).

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Reference List

Bohuon, A. and Rodriquez, E. (2016). Gender verification vs. anti-doping policies. In: S. Montanola and A. Olivesi, ed., Gender Testing in Sport: Ethics cases and controversies, 1st ed. Oxon: Routledge.

Camporesi, S. and Maugeri, P. (2016) Unfair advantage and the myth of the level playing field in IAAF and IOC policies on hyperandrogenism. . In: S. Montanola and A. Olivesi, ed., Gender Testing in Sport: Ethics cases and controversies, 1st ed. Oxon: Routledge.

Dworkin, S. and Cookey, C.(2012). Sport, Sex Segregation and Sex Testing: Critical Reflections on This Unjust Marriage. The American Journal of Bioethics, 12(7)  pp.21-23.

 Farquhar, G. (2017). Semenya's sex test explained. [Blog] BBC Sport Gordon Farquhar's Blog. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/gordonfarquhar/2009/08/this_must_be_an_awful.html [Accessed 10 Nov. 2017].

Karkazis, K. and Jordan-Young, R. (2015). Debating a testosterone sex gap. Insights, 348(6237), pp.858-860.

Newbould, M. (2015). What do we do about women athletes with tests? J Med Ethics. 42 pp.256-259.

Smith, D. (2017). Caster Semenya row: 'Who are white people to question the makeup of an African girl? It is racism'. The Guardian. [online] Available at:https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/aug/23/caster-semenya-athletics-gender [Accessed 9 Nov. 2017].

For some women, their integrity to avoid any aspect of cheating might not be enough to save their disqualification from competition – their bodies naturally label them ‘a cheat’… [1]

As an avid sports fan, ‘fairness’ in the field of competition matters to me, a lot – and I’m sure most other sport fanatics would share similar views.

But what is ‘fairness’?

Honesty, integrity, sportsmanship and equality are just a few gathered words that help to conceptualise the simple term of ‘fairness’. However, individuals do not need to be the same in every imaginable respect – nor are we created to be. [2]

Referring to sex-testing within female athletics, the high-regarded virtue of fairness appears to disappear.

The purpose of sex-testing in sport is to maintain the provision of opportunities to women in elite sports competition, ensuring that athletes compete in their appropriate gender category.

Measures to protect women’s sport through sex-testing has left too many female athletes being persecuted for reasons beyond their personal control; their biological and genetic compositions. The irony of sex-testing is that it attempts to protect women’s sports by excluding certain women. [3]

Let me explain…

Distinction between levels of male and female athletic performance is heavily due to higher levels in androgenic hormones (predominantly testosterone) in male athletes, resulting in increased strength and muscle development. [4]

Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition identified by excessive levels of androgens in the female body. Although this is a rare emergence, controversy is soon triggered due to the concerned individual displaying masculine traits and having ‘an uncommon athletic capacity in relation to their fellow female competitors’. [4]

At the 2009 World Championships, controversy arose following Caster Semenya’s victory in the 800 metres. The athlete was subject to accusations regarding masculine bodily traits which rendered her with an ‘unfair’ advantage over her rival – and apparently ‘appropriate’ – female runners.

Figure: Caster Semenya marks her victory with    joyous celebrations. 

(Taken from Flickr: computer.experts321 ahmed)

After facing harsh comparisons to her male counterparts, reports suggested that Semenya produced testosterone levels that were three times higher than the average woman.

Eventually, hyperandrogenism was diagnosed and following the case, the IAAF (International Association of Athletics Federation) introduced a policy of gender eligibility, making testosterone levels of female athletes central to its regulations. Female athletes were limited on their body’s levels of testosterone before being no longer considered ‘female enough’ to compete as a woman.

The issue, (according to the IAAF), is that male competitors achieve greater sporting performance due to natural levels of hormones, distinctly greater than those in women. For a female athlete to show such traits, she would essentially be mimicking the effects of performance-enhancing drugs, [1] regardless that the effects stem from their own biology.

In 2014, Indian sprinter, Dutee Chand, was suspended from competition after ‘failing’ tests regarding her natural levels of testosterone and was later diagnosed with hyperandrogenism. After Chand issued an appeal to allow her to compete, further investigations commenced.

The IAAF issued developed regulations stating that female athletes could continue to compete if her androgen levels fell below the normal range, or substances to control high androgen levels were kept recorded.

Figure: Extract of Chand’s Letter of Appeal, in    response to her competitive suspension.

(Taken from: http://www.tas-cas.org/fileadmin/user_upload/award_internet.pdf )

So, a sport where doping is closely monitored and is absolutely forbidden is allowing for hormonal medication to be taken in order to control and limit natural biology. Irony!

This highlights the grey area of uncertainty in this topic – a topic which is depriving female athletes the freedom to compete.

The debate of this ongoing issue could venture to a whole new avenue of questions and discussions – but for now, the conclusion remains unstable.

Typical ‘male’ characteristics are suggested to play a compelling role in advanced sporting performance, therefore, elite female athletes are bound to portray masculine traits from time to time.

Gender inequality is exemplified through this vicious circle of female athleticism: as a woman’s athleticism advances, the less association she has to being seen as a ‘woman’.

Is there too much focus and over-analysation on the natural performing body of a female athlete?

And is this preventing natural champions from wearing their deserved and worthy medals?

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References

[3] Buzuvis, E.E. (2016) Hormone Check: Critique of Olympic Rules on Sex and Gender, 31(1). p. 36

[4] International Association of Athletics Federations, (2011). IAAF Regulations Governing Eligibility Of Female Athletes With Hyperandrogenism To Compete In Women’s Competition. [Online] Available at: https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=58438613-aaa7-4bcd-b730-70296abab70c.pdf&urlslug=IAAF%20Regulations%20Governing%20Eligibility%20of%20Females%20with%20Hyperandrogenism%20to%20Compete%20in%20Women%E2%80%99s%20Competition%20-%20In%20force%20as%20from%201st%20May%202011 [Accessed 7th November 2017]

[2] Murray, T.H (2010) Making Sense of Fairness in Sports: Hastings Center Report. 40(2). p. 13-15

Is Sex Testing a modern menace or a required practice?

The case of Caster Semenya and the ambiguity regarding her sex was well documented by our modern media back in 2009, however the issue of sex testing within Athletics remains as contentious as ever. Caster’s case sent the media into melt-down, with no-one quite sure whether she was male or female helping to highlight the role sex testing plays within athletics and the problems associated with it. The need to determine an athlete’s sex derives from the fact that within athletics, athletes are separated into two distinct categories, male and female. This distinction allows for recognition of the specific aptitude and performance of female athletes (IAAF, 2011). It recognises the biological differences between men, women and the way it affects their performance. Separating the sexes attempts to maintain fairness and perhaps suggests that a form of monitoring needs to take place to ensure female athletes are female.

So why was there such a panic over Caster and her incredible athletic performance? As spectators of sport do we not want to see athletes push the boundaries of performance? Well it was believed Caster had an unfair advantage over her fellow competitors because she possessed higher levels of testosterone in comparison to her fellow athletes (a condition called hyperandrogenism) which were thought to give her the competitive edge. An IAAF statement read that Semenya ‘did not meet the requirements to compete as a woman’ which in 2009 banned her from competitive athletics, however in 2010 she was granted permission to compete again (Schultz, 2011).

The problem with this is that there is little, if any scientific evidence proving successful athletes have higher testosterone levels than their fellow competitors (Cooky et al 2013). In 2015 the Court of Arbitration for Sport was unable to conclude that female athletes with hyperandrogenism gained an advantage over non-hyperandrogenic female athletes (CAS, 2015). The grounds for banning any female athletes because of hyperandrogenism were removed and so proves Semenya does not enjoy an advantage and should not have been banned.  

No advantage but issues remain

So, with no medical evidence indicating an advantage, why was Semenya forced to undertake tests to determine her sex? Could it be that due to her uncommon athletic ability and masculine traits that she was discriminated against? Do female athlete who do not conform to our ideals of femininity find themselves the victims of suspicion based testing (Schultz, 2011)? The International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF) regulations concerning female athletes with hyperandrogenism suggest that these athletes often display masculine traits and a greater athletic capacity in comparison to their fellow competitors (IAAF, 2011). Is the athletic ability of these athletes under question and therefore their sexuality because they don’t appear as woman-like as we would like? Sullivan supports this idea with the argument that regulation of sex provides governing bodies the power to make the decision as to what an athlete’s body should look like in order to be eligible to compete (2011). If the athlete doesn’t conform to these standards, well… we know what happened with Caster Semenya.

Where does this leave us now? With no proven advantage should sex testing remain as a means of determining the eligibility of female athletes or is there more at stake than the question of enjoying the advantage of being male as a female?

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Bibliography

Court of Arbitration for Sport., 2015. CAS 2014/A/3759 Dutee Chand v. Athletics Federation of India (AFI) & The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) [online] Accessed via: http://www.tas-cas.org/fileadmin/user_upload/AWARD_3759__FINAL___REDACTED_FOR_PUBLICATION_.pdf [Date Accessed 9th November 2017]

Cooky, C and L. Dworkin, S., 2013. Policing the Boundaries of Sex: A Critical Examination of Gender Verification and the Caster Semenya Controversy. JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH [online] 50(2), pg.103–111. Accessed via: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224499.2012.725488?journalCode=hjsr20 [Date Accessed 8th November 2017]

International Association of Athletics Federations., 2011. IAAF Regulations governing eligibility of females with hyperandrogenism to compete in women’s competition. IAAF Athletics [online] Accessed via: https://www.iaaf.org/news/iaaf-news/iaaf-to-introduce-eligibility-rules-for-femal-1 [Date Accessed 8th November 2017]

Kessel, A., 2009. Caster Semenya wins 800m gold but cannot escape gender controversy. [online] The Guardian [online] Available via: https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/aug/19/caster-semenya-800m-world-athletics-championships-gender [Date Accessed 9th November 2017].

Longman, J., 2016. Understanding the Controversy Over Caster Semenya. [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/20/sports/caster-semenya-800-meters.html [Accessed 9 Nov. 2017].

Schultz, J., 2011. Caster Semenya and the “Question of Too”: Sex Testing in Elite Women's Sport and the Issue of Advantage. Quest [online] 63(2), pg.228-243. Accessed via: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/00336297.2011.10483678 [Date Accessed 8th November 2017]