#security web application testing certification

📖 Your step-by-step journey to becoming a Software Developer in 2025.

1️⃣ Foundations

Computer Science fundamentals: Data Structures & Algorithms

Operating Systems & Networking basics

Problem-solving and logic building

2️⃣ Programming Languages

Core: Python, Java, C++, or JavaScript

Learn multiple paradigms: OOP, Functional, Procedural

Practice with coding platforms (LeetCode, HackerRank)

3️⃣ Software Development Tools

Version Control: Git & GitHub/GitLab/Bitbucket

IDEs: VS Code, IntelliJ, Eclipse

Package managers: npm, pip, Maven, Gradle

4️⃣ Web Development Basics

Frontend: HTML, CSS, JavaScript

Backend: Node.js, Django, Spring Boot

Databases: SQL (MySQL, PostgreSQL) & NoSQL (MongoDB, Firebase)

5️⃣ Application Architecture

Client-server model

APIs: REST & GraphQL

Microservices fundamentals

6️⃣ Testing & Debugging

Unit testing (JUnit, PyTest, Mocha)

Integration testing & debugging tools

Test automation frameworks (Selenium, Cypress)

7️⃣ DevOps & Deployment

CI/CD basics (Jenkins, GitHub Actions, GitLab CI)

Containerisation with Docker

Deployment on AWS, Azure, or GCP

8️⃣ Advanced Concepts

Design Patterns & SOLID Principles

Secure coding practices

Scalability and performance optimisation

9️⃣ Portfolio & Career

Build real-world projects (web apps, mobile apps, APIs)

Contribute to open-source projects

Certifications: Oracle Java, Microsoft, AWS Developer Associate

Choose a specialisation (Frontend, Backend, Full-Stack, Mobile, etc.)

💡 Final Note A Software Developer is a problem-solver at heart. By mastering coding, architecture, and deployment, you’ll build impactful solutions that shape the digital world.

Thousands of law enforcement officials and people applying to be police officers in India have had their personal information leaked online—including fingerprints, facial scan images, signatures, and details of tattoos and scars on their bodies. If that wasn’t alarming enough, at around the same time, cybercriminals have started to advertise the sale of similar biometric police data from India on messaging app Telegram.

Last month, security researcher Jeremiah Fowler spotted the sensitive files on an exposed web server linked to ThoughtGreen Technologies, an IT development and outsourcing firm with offices in India, Australia, and the US. Within a total of almost 500 gigabytes of data spanning 1.6 million documents, dated from 2021 until when Fowler discovered them in early April, was a mine of sensitive personal information about teachers, railway workers, and law enforcement officials. Birth certificates, diplomas, education certificates, and job applications were all included.

Fowler, who shared his findings exclusively with WIRED, says within the heaps of information, the most concerning were those that appeared to be verification documents linked to Indian law enforcement or military personnel. While the misconfigured server has now been closed off, the incident highlights the risks of companies collecting and storing biometric data, such as fingerprints and facial images, and how they could be misused if the data is accidentally leaked.

“You can change your name, you can change your bank information, but you can't change your actual biometrics,” Fowler says. The researcher, who also published the findings on behalf of Website Planet, says this kind of data could be used by cybercriminals or fraudsters to target people in the future, a risk that’s increased for sensitive law enforcement positions.

Within the database Fowler examined were several mobile applications and installation files. One was titled “facial software installation,” and a separate folder contained 8 GB of facial data. Photographs of people’s faces included computer-generated rectangles that are often used for measuring the distance between points of the face in face recognition systems.

There were 284,535 documents labeled as Physical Efficiency Tests that related to police staff, Fowler says. Other files included job application forms for law enforcement officials, profile photos, and identification documents with details such as “mole at nose” and “cut on chin.” At least one image shows a person holding a document with a corresponding photo of them included on it. “The first thing I saw was thousands and thousands of fingerprints,” Fowler says.

Prateek Waghre, executive director of Indian digital rights organization Internet Freedom Foundation, says there is “vast” biometric data collection happening across India, but there are added security risks for people involved in law enforcement. “A lot of times, the verification that government employees or officers use also relies on biometric systems,” Waghre says. “If you have that potentially compromised, you are in a position for someone to be able to misuse and then gain access to information that they shouldn’t.”

It appears that some biometric information about law enforcement officials may already be shared online. Fowler says after the exposed database was closed down he also discovered a Telegram channel, containing a few hundred members, which was claiming to sell Indian police data, including of specific individuals. “The structure, the screenshots, and a couple of the folder names matched what I saw,” says Fowler, who for ethical reasons did not purchase the data being sold by the criminals so could not fully verify it was exactly the same data.

“We take data security very seriously, have taken immediate steps to secure the exposed data,” a member of ThoughtGreen Technologies wrote in an email to WIRED. “Due to the sensitivity of data, we cannot comment on specifics in an email. However, we can assure you that we are investigating this matter thoroughly to ensure such an incident does not occur again.”

In follow-up messages, the staff member said the company had “raised a complaint” with law enforcement in India about the incident, but did not specify which organization they had contacted. When shown a screenshot of the Telegram post claiming to sell Indian police biometric data, the ThoughtGreen Technologies staff member said it is “not our data.” Telegram did not respond to a request for comment.

Shivangi Narayan, an independent researcher in India, says the country’s data protection law needs to be made more robust, and companies and organizations need to take greater care with how they handle people’s data. “A lot of data is collected in India, but nobody's really bothered about how to store it properly,” Narayan says. Data breaches are happening so regularly that people have “lost that surprise shock factor,” Narayan says. In early May, one cybersecurity company said it had seen a face-recognition data breach connected to one Indian police force, including police and suspect information.

The issues are wider, though. As governments, companies, and other organizations around the world increasingly rely on collecting people’s biometric data for proving their identity or as part of surveillance technologies, there’s an increased risk of the information leaking online and being abused. In Australia, for instance, a recent face recognition leak impacting up to a million people led to a person being charged with blackmail.

Learn Ethical Hacking From A-Z: Beginner To Expert Course

Learn how to become an elite ethical hacker and easily hack networks, computer systems, web apps and so much more…

What you’ll learn

Learn Ethical Hacking From A-Z: Beginner To Expert Course

How To Become An Elite Ethical Hacker

How To Setup A Hacking Lab

Learn How To Launch Attacks/Exploits Against Computers

How To Start A Cybersecurity/Ethical Hacking Career

How To Hack Into Wireless Networks

Learn How To Conduct Penetration Tests

How To Bypass Antivirus

The Fundamentals of Networking

How To Remain Anonymous On The Internet

The Fundamentals of Linux

The Fundamentals of Bash

How To Gather Website & App Data

The Fundamentals of Python

Maintaining Access To Exploited Computers

Website & Web Application Hacking

Mobile Phone Security Tips

Where You Can Practice Hacking For Free

Conducting Passive & Active Reconnaissance On A Network

Requirements

Basic IT/Computer Skills & Knowledge

Computer With At Least 8GB of RAM/Memory (Less is ok, but your computer may run slow!)

Wifi Hacking Section Only: USB Wireless Adapter (Link Provided In Course Resources)

You Do Not Need Any Prior Experience In Hacking Or Cybersecurity To Go Through This Course

Description

Welcome to – Learn Ethical Hacking From A-Z: Beginner To Expert Course! This practical, hands-on course was created for newbies – that’s to say, people with no prior training or knowledge in hacking and cybersecurity. The aim of this course is to give you the education not just to understand what black-hat hatters do and how, but also to learn exactly how to hack systems like a pro and win the cat and mouse game by securing systems like a professional security expert. Blending practical work with solid theoretical training, we take you from the basics of ethical hacking through to mastery, giving you the training you need not just to hack, but also to secure against a hack. While the theory is important, we understand that it can also be dry and uninspiring. For this reason, this course is packed with examples that you can follow. This practical focus starts from the beginning, where we will teach you about penetration testing and show you how to install the software required (Windows, Linux, and Mac OSX) and jump right into hacking. Throughout, you will analyze and exploit various systems from regular websites through to sprawling networks, along with hacking servers and clients. More than just hacking, you’ll also learn how to conduct efficient penetration testing techniques. This approach gives you the foundational education that you need not just to hack any given system, but also to secure it, with each module covering both sides of the coin. The course covers six main areas:

1: LEARN THE FUNDAMENTALS NECESSARY TO BECOME A HACKER

This foundational section gives you a full introduction to the basics of networking systems – how they communicate and work – and is designed to give you the knowledge you need to succeed in this course. BASICS OF NETWORKING: Networking can be an intimidating topic, but don’t worry! We break down only the necessary things that you need to know in regards to networking and teach you important networking fundamentals SETTING UP A HACKING LAB: You can’t hack without a lab! We walk you step-by-step through the process of setting up your own hacking lab on your laptop or desktop computer! LINUX + SCRIPTING BASICS: Hackers use Linux, which is an OS that the average person may have no experience with. We will go over Linux fundamentals so that you can easily navigate your way through Linux during this course. We also touch on a couple of scripting languages that are a MUST for any ethical hacker and teach you the basics of each one with practical examples. HIDING YOUR IDENTITY ON THE WEB: If you are hacking on the internet, you need to learn how to remain anonymous. We will show you the tools and techniques that you can use to always remain anonymous and unknown on the internet.

2: LEARN HOW TO HACK NETWORKS

This section shows you how to test both wired and wireless systems. You will learn how to go from not having any access to a network to gaining access and being able to begin attacking systems on the network. PRE-CONNECTION ATTACK: Not all attacks require you to be connected to the target or even know the password. Learn how to discover and manipulate devices connected to a network and gather information about your target. GAIN ACCESS TO NETWORKS: Learn how to use the information you have about your target to crack the key and get the access password. This section covers multiple protocols including WEP, WPA, and WPA2. POST-CONNECTION ATTACKS: With a key, you can now leverage powerful hacking techniques to get even more information. Learn how to see what users are doing on a network, inject code in pages, and more on wired and wireless networks

3: HOW TO GAIN ACCESS AND CONNECT TO NETWORKS

This section builds on the lessons learned in section one, showing you how you can get full control and hack into any computer system that you target. SERVER-SIDE ATTACK: Discover how to harvest information about your targeted system – its OS, open ports, and installed services – without user interaction. Then use this information to exploit vulnerabilities and generate reports. CLIENT-SIDE ATTACK: Learn how to hack systems with no vulnerabilities by sneaking in with software updates or using backdoor trojan downloads. You’ll also learn the art of social engineering – or tricking people into giving you information.

4: HOW TO LEVERAGE POST EXPLOITATION

This section shifts the focus on interacting with compromised systems. Now that you have gained access, you’ll learn how you can exploit these systems. ACCESS FILE SYSTEMS: All systems have a wealth of files that you can now manipulate with your access. Learn how to access these systems and how to read, write, upload, and even execute files. MAINTAIN ACCESS: Gaining access to a system and its files is only half of the battle. Learn how to maintain your access and frustrate efforts to secure it again so you can continue to exploit a system. SPY ON YOUR TARGET: Learn how to capture any keystrokes on a keyboard, turn on a computer webcam, take screenshots, and even take control of the system to attack, hack, and access third-party networks and systems.

5: HOW TO HACK WEBSITES AND WEB APPS

In this section, you will learn more about how you can hack into websites and web applications using Kali Linux. You’ll also learn how web applications work – and how to find vulnerabilities within these applications for you to exploit. > How to scan websites/web applications for vulnerabilities to exploit. > How to Brute Force into web applications. > Learn how to conduct SQL injection in web applications. > How to conduct Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF). > How to exploit File Inclusion Vulnerabilities. > Learn how to exploit File Upload Vulnerabilities. > How to automate attacking web applications using various tools. > How to prevent and secure websites & apps yourself.

6: HOW TO MAKE MONEY, LAND A JOB & BUILD A BRAND AS A HACKER

In this section, you will learn how you can make money as an ethical hacker using a variety of methods. You’ll also learn how to build your personal brand and get your name out there as an Ethical Hacker so you can have employers and clients knocking at your door ready to hire you for your services. Then finally, you’ll learn how you can start a career in cybersecurity with some insider tips on what certifications to get and the best way to land a job. This includes: > How to build an ethical hacker personal brand from scratch > How to get instant credibility and authority as a hacker > Learn how to properly network and get others talking about you > How to make money using a variety of websites > How to get started freelancing as a hacker > Learn how to get started consulting as a hacker > How to land a job as a cybersecurity professional This course is comprehensive, showing you both sides of hacking. You will learn to think and operate like a hacker – and how to apply that knowledge as a cybersecurity expert to protect you and your clients’ networks and systems. In taking this ‘cat and mouse approach, your rounded understanding will give your approach new depths and angles, revealing the paths you can take to effectively neutralize any threat. Together with the emphasis on practical examples that you can follow in real life with live systems, you will also benefit from the excitement of hands-on learning. By experiencing precisely what it takes to hack into any given target system, you’ll also learn that no one system is the same and that all approaches can be modified. This real-life learning is an invaluable part of your education, enabling you to better see what hackers are doing and how to block even the most potent attacks. No matter what the scenario or how complicated a hacking situation, this course gives you the foundational training you need to secure a network – and start pursuing a career in a field that is increasingly in demand as the global reliance on technology grows.

Download

Presentation 1: Bug Bounties

 Where to start Hunting?

Crowd-sourced bug bounty website

Bug crowd

Open to public

Tips to get started

Learn web application principles

Look for wider scope and less competition

Increase number of bugs

Less likelihood of dupes

Stay in scope

Look for assets which have changed recently

Look for publicly disclosed reports

Start at comfortable difficulty

Work towards your skills

Teamwork

 Process of Bug Bounty

Find a suitable program

Review the scope

Find the target via recon

Hit target and find vulnerability

Write a report

Submit the report to the company

 Training resources

Hacker101

Sql injections

Password management

Fuzzing

Eg of fuzzing software - afl

Technique used to look for bugs

Have program and repeatedly feed it input and observe if any bugs are produced

Different types of fuzzers:

Multination-based vs generation based

Aware of input size

The Heartbleed bug

 Presentation 2: Pen Testing

 Pen Testing

Detect vulnerabilities and expose them

Is an authorised simulated cyberattack on a computer system to evaluate risks

Repercussions of an attack on your security system

Why it is important

It allows us to discover vulnerabilities in our system before attackers do

It can test your security controls (firewalls, ips, ids)

Sometimes thinking like an attacker is the best way

Practical uses of pen testing

Gives coverage to companies without getting hacked

Get ahead of the curve

Stages of pen testing

Recon - intelligence is gathered

Planning

Exploitation

Post exploitation

Pen testing tools

Metasploit

Gobuster

Burb

Wireshark - analysing network connections

Nnmap

Kali - package has tools like info gatherinr, reverse engineering, reporting tools, password attacks, maintaining access, exploitation tools, forensics tools, wireless attacks

Burpsuite - most popular software used to test sofware

CTF Websites

Pwnable.com can be used to practise

Read up about the NSW LPI and think about what assets they have and what risks arise from them having been privatised  eg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales_Land_and_Property_Informat

 Shared secret - when the person that needs to be authenticated and the person is authenticated have a secret between them. This can be used to authenticate. Eg. A certain code word

Problem with authentication - if computer has been preloaded with shared secrets and these secrets have been used once, then that's a problem

How can you detect and protect against the man in the middle?

Web of trust (PgP) and PKI. (check out how PGP does authentication using web of trust)

PKI

Links your public key to usually a web domain. It's certified to something that everyone trusts

SSL/TLS

Read Bruce Schneir's paper

Certificate authority ties the key to a domain name. it doesn't tie the key to anyone in the world

 Look up how the TLS handshake works

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Jisoo:  Slam. Jisoo was startled by the noise.You stormed through the dorms into her room. Slam. yet again Jisoo jumped. A heavy sigh left her lips. She knew exams were coming up. The stress of trying to maintain your GPA for your program was getting to you. Jisoo reached into the refrigerator to grab a bowl of grapes. She wanted to help. However, she knew nothing about your major. The one thing she knew was your love for her quirkiness.

“Delivery” Jisoo knocked slowly opening the door. The room was dim. You had opted to wallow in sadness. You might have rolled your eyes when you noticed Jisoo sat next to you. Jisoo started to hum a child lullaby. You unconsciously began to hum along. It triggered a memory of being home with your mother. The song used to calm you down during thunderstorms.

You let out a huge sigh. You didn’t mean to cry. You didn’t want to cry. The body wouldn’t let you. You burst into tears. Jisoo gently wrapped an arm around you. You shifted into her chest as she soon became the big spoon in your much-needed cuddle session. Jisoo never stopped humming that tune through your tears. She couldn’t do much but she could at least be there to comfort you when you are feeling weak.

Jennie: There were benefits to dating Jennie. She helped you with your self-confidence. She endorsed all of your dreams. She even helped you figure out how to stand up for yourself. Jennie wanted what was best for you. Jennie saw your true potential and saw how much farther you could go if you had some support.

It was no secret to anyone that you hated your job. The coworkers you had an alliance with had left. You complained to Jennie about your new partner for a budget. He constantly would undermine your suggestions. He was a stereotypical businessman who felt like a woman's place was in the kitchen. Jennie told you over and over to speak up. She even threatened to do it herself. Today, He pushed your last buttons. He spoke over you and took credit for the new budget that you had slaved night and day over for a week. Embarrassed you in front of a meeting with all of the board of directors members. You were trapped between a rock and hard place. Speak up and potentially lose your job. Or stay quiet. You held in your frustrations. Mind only racing to how weak you were in comparison to her.

Once the door closed into your apartment, The tears fell. You hadn’t realized how long you had been holding them back until then. You leaned on the door and sobbed. You hadn’t even noticed that Jennie came out from your room. When she saw you in tears, She already knew the problem. Normally she would give you the same lecture she has before. However, after seeing your state, She knew you need her comfort today. Jennie wrapped her arms around you and just held you. Something needed to be done about the situation. But for now, all you needed was shoulder to cry on.

Rose: Square two preparations were about to drive Chae-young crazy. However, not as crazy as you were going to go because of your certification exam. You had passed ¾ parts and it was only the last section. Even though, it was the easiest part. Your mind was drained from the other three.e You even questioned whether you would be able to pass it. Your anxiety just grew in magnitude as the test date inched closer and closer.

Chae-young came to the apartment after practice. It was nearly two Am and she was still in the same spot you had left her at 2 PM. The desk was covered in books and papers. As the web lecture continued. Your fingers rubbed small circles around your temples. Chaeyoung barely knew what to do. You were usually the one to keep it together. While She would be in tears.

Chae-young gently closed the laptop. The room went silent. Your tears flooded out. You didn’t even try to stop them. Each one hit the paper. Chae-young pulled the chair out and turned you around to face her. She gently played with your hair. She sat on your lap. Her arms naturally wrapped around you as your tears fell on her chest. Chae-young didn’t mind being that person that allowed you to be weak.

Lisa: The line of customers stretched all the way to the back of the store. Your boss was on your case about making sure, you filled out store credit card applications. Customers were constantly in your ear. Angry about a coupon that did not work. You took a deep breath. Unfortunately, You were one of those unlucky college graduates who hadn’t found a job in their field after graduation so this was your reality. Most days you were able to find happiness in misery but, today wasn’t one of those days.

Lisa was busy herself. She felt bad because hadn’t made enough time to see you. She knew the stress was probably starting to get to you. The holidays working retail was the worst. She wanted to help. Even sent your resume to a few people she knew. Praying that one day, You would be able to just quit that horrid place. Until then, she wanted to make you happy as best as she could. Today wasn’t as busy as usual so she decided to surprise you at work with lunch. She even brought you desert.

You walked away from your register. Customers began complaining because the line was long. You ran to the break room. The tear began to build up as you clocked in for lunch. The tears were in your eyes as you exited the store. You walked so fast you nearly missed her.

“(Y/N)” Lisa took you out of your trance. She wrapped her arms around you into a hug. Her warm skin around you was all the security you need to officially breakdown. You started to cry. Lisa a little taken back just held you close. She whispered calming words in your ears. After a few minutes, you pulled away. You apologized profusely.

‘Don’t apologize, It’s ok. Let’s get your mind off that place for a while” Lisa brushed your hair out of your face. “I brought your favorite.” She held up the bag with that same signature smile across her face. Everyone needs a sunshine, during dark days. Lisa was yours.  

*You are Chae-young*

In today’s digital world, injustice lurks in the shadows of the Facebook post that’s delivered to certain groups of people at the exclusion of others, the hidden algorithm used to profile candidates during job interviews, and the risk-assessment algorithms used for criminal sentencing and welfare fraud detention. As algorithmic systems are integrated into every aspect of society, regulatory mechanisms struggle to keep up.

Over the past decade, researchers and journalists have found ways to unveil and scrutinize these discriminatory systems, developing their own data collection tools. As the internet has moved from browsers to mobile apps, however, this crucial transparency is quickly disappearing.

Third-party analysis of digital systems has largely been made possible by two seemingly banal tools that are commonly used to inspect what’s happening on a webpage: browser add-ons and browser developer tools.

Browser add-ons are small programs that can be installed directly onto a web browser, allowing users to augment how they interact with a given website. While add-ons are commonly used to operate tools like password managers and ad-blockers, they are also incredibly useful for enabling people to collect their own data within a tech platform’s walled garden.

Similarly, browser developer tools were made to allow web developers to test and debug their websites’ user interfaces. As the internet evolved and websites became more complex, these tools evolved too, adding features like the ability to inspect and change source code, monitor network activity, and even detect when a website is accessing your location or microphone. These are powerful mechanisms for investigating how companies track, profile, and target their users.

I have put these tools to use as a data journalist to show how a marketing company logged users’ personal data even before they clicked “submit” on a form and, more recently, how the Meta Pixel tool (formerly the Facebook Pixel tool) tracks users without their explicit knowledge in sensitive places such as hospital websites, federal student loan applications, and the websites of tax-filing tools.

In addition to exposing surveillance, browser inspection tools provide a powerful way to crowdsource data to study discrimination, the spread of misinformation, and other types of harms tech companies cause or facilitate. But in spite of these tools’ powerful capabilities, their reach is limited. In 2023, Kepios reported that 92 percent of global users accessed the internet through their smartphones, whereas only 65 percent of global users did so using a desktop or laptop computer.

Though the vast majority of internet traffic has moved to smartphones, we don’t have tools for the smartphone ecosystem that afford the same level of “inspectability” as browser add-ons and developer tools. This is because web browsers are implicitly transparent, while mobile phone operating systems are not.

If you want to view a website in your web browser, the server has to send you the source code. Mobile apps, on the other hand, are compiled, executable files that you usually download from places such as Apple’s iOS App Store or Google Play. App developers don’t need to publish the source code for people to use them.

Similarly, monitoring network traffic on web browsers is trivial. This technique is often more useful than inspecting source code to see what data a company is collecting on users. Want to know which companies a website shares your data with? You’ll want to monitor the network traffic, not inspect the source code. On smartphones, network monitoring is possible, but it usually requires the installation of root certificates that make users’ devices less secure and more vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks from bad actors. And these are just some of the differences that make collecting data securely from smartphones much harder than from browsers.

The need for independent collection is more pressing than ever. Previously, company-provided tools such as the Twitter API and Facebook’s CrowdTangle, a tool for monitoring what’s trending on Facebook, were the infrastructure that powered a large portion of research and reporting on social media. However, as these tools become less useful and accessible, new methods of independent data collection are needed to understand what these companies are doing and how people are using their platforms.

To meaningfully report on the impact digital systems have on society, we need to be able to observe what’s taking place on our devices without asking a company for permission. As someone who has spent the past decade building tools that crowdsource data to expose algorithmic harms, I believe the public should have the ability to peek under the hood of their mobile apps and smart devices, just as they can on their browsers. And it’s not just me: The Integrity Institute, a nonprofit working to protect the social internet, recently released a report that lays bare the importance of transparency as a lever to achieve public interest goals like accountability, collaboration, understanding, and trust.

To demand transparency from tech platforms, we need a platform-independent transparency framework, something that I like to call an inspectability API. Such a framework would empower even the most vulnerable populations to capture evidence of harm from their devices while minimizing the risk of their data being used in research or reporting without their consent.

An application programming interface (API) is a way for companies to make their services or data available to other developers. For example, if you’re building a mobile app and want to use the phone’s camera for a specific feature, you would use the iOS or Android Camera API. Another common example is an accessibility API, which allows developers to make their applications accessible to people with disabilities by making the user interface legible to screen readers and other accessibility tools commonly found on modern smartphones and computers. An inspectability API would allow individuals to export data from the apps they use every day and share it with researchers, journalists, and advocates in their communities. Companies could be required to implement this API to adhere to transparency best practices, much as they are required to implement accessibility features to make their apps and websites usable for people with disabilities.

In the US, residents of some states can request the data companies collect on them, thanks to state-level privacy laws. While these laws are well-intentioned, the data that companies share to comply with them is usually structured in a way that obfuscates crucial details that would expose harm. For example, Facebook has a fairly granular data export service that allows individuals to see, amongst other things, their “Off-Facebook activity.” However, as the Markup found during a series of investigations into the use of Pixel, even though Facebook told users which websites were sharing data, it did not reveal just how invasive the information being shared was. Doctor appointments, tax filing information, and student loan information were just some of the things that were being sent to Facebook. An inspectability API would make it easy for people to monitor their devices and see how the apps they use track them in real time.

Some promising work is already being done: Apple’s introduction of the App Privacy Report in iOS 15 marked the first time iPhone users could see detailed privacy information to understand each app’s data collection practices and even answer questions such as, “Is Instagram listening to my microphone?”

But we cannot rely on companies to do this at their discretion—we need a clear framework to define what sort of data should be inspectable and exportable by users, and we need regulation that penalizes companies for not implementing it. Such a framework would not only empower users to expose harms, but also ensure that their privacy is not violated. Individuals could choose what data to share, when, and with whom.

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