#relativeclauses

Participle clauses

We can often reduce a defining clause so that it begins with a present participle (-ing), past participle (-ed), or to-infinitive.

-ing clauses correspond to defining relative clauses with an active verb, and -ed clauses correspond to defining relative clauses with an passive verb.

Verbs which are not normally used in continuous forms may be used in reduced relative -ing clauses. e.g. ...contains..., not ...is containing...

However, we can say: ...cointaining...

Other verbs like this include belong to, comprise, consist of, constitute, equal, own, possess, resemble, result from, surround.

It is not always possible to use a reduced form of a relative clause.

We can’t use a reduced form when the first verb in the relative clause is a modal verb. e.g. A technique that might be used in...

We can’t use an -ing reduced form when we talk about a single, completed action. e.g. The chef preparing the food today... (=the chef who is preparing the food today...)

Reduced relative clauses can also be used instead of non-defining relative clauses, particularly in written english. These are usually written between commas(,) or dashes (-).

To-infinitive clauses

We often use a to-infinitive clause instead of a relative clause after:

a superlative + noun (phrase)

the first/second, etc. + noun (phrase)

the only/the next/the last/another/one + noun (phrase)

Often we can use an active or passive to-infinitive clause with little difference in meaning.

Adjective phrases

Adjectives and adjective phrases can be used after nouns with a meaning similar to a relative clause. Often the adjective is followed by a to-infinitive or preposition, or used with an adverb.

A few adjectives (e.g. affected, available, present) can be used alone after a noun with a meaning similar to a relative clause.

Prepositional phrases

Defining and non-defining relative clauses

Relative clauses give more information about someone or something referred to in the main clause.

Defining relative clauses specify which (or which type of) person or thing we mean.

Non-defining relative clauses simply add extra information about a noun.

We put a relative clause as close as possible to the noun it refers to.

Some relative clauses refer back to the whole idea in the previous clause, not just the previous noun. Most of these begin with which.

Relative pronouns

- Adding information about people

defining relative clause (subject pronoun - the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause). e.g.who

defining relative clause (object pronoun - the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause). e.g. who

non-defining relative clause (subject pronoun). Note that whom is now used only in very formal styles, mostly in writing.

- Adding information about things or animals

defining relative clause (subject pronoun)

defining relative clause (object pronoun)

non-defining relative clause (subject and object pronoun).

In both defining and non-defining relative clause we can often use who, that or which with collective nouns referring to groups of people (e.g. company, government, orchestra).

Other words beginng relative clauses

We often use when after a noun referring to a time, or words such as day, period, time.

More formally, we can often use a preposition + which

Less formally, we can use that or no relative pronoun in defining relative clauses.

We often use why after reason.

We often use where after a noun referring to a location, and after the words case, condition, example, experiment, instance, point, process, situation and system.

More formally, we can use a preposition + which such as in which.

We use whose + noun to talk about something belonging to or connected with a person, town, country or organization.

In formal uses, noun + of which can sometimes replace whose + noun.

Prepositions in relative clauses

A preposition usually comes before the relative pronoun in formal styles. After a preposition, we usually use whom rather than who in formal styles.

A preposition usually comes at the end of the clause in less formal styles.

We can use of which and of whom (or very informally of who) after all, both, each, many, most, neither, part, several, some; a number (e.g. on, the first) and superlatives.

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