Metaethics is a branch of philosophy that investigates the foundations, nature, and meaning of ethical concepts, judgments, and language. Unlike normative ethics, which focuses on what is morally right or wrong, and applied ethics, which applies ethical theories to specific situations, metaethics asks deeper, more abstract questions about the nature of morality itself. It explores the origins and meaning of ethical principles, the nature of moral facts, and the relationship between ethical language and the world.

Core Questions in Metaethics

What is the Nature of Moral Judgments?

Metaethics seeks to understand whether moral judgments are expressions of objective truths or merely subjective opinions. This question leads to the debate between moral realism, which posits that moral facts exist independently of human beliefs, and moral anti-realism, which denies the existence of objective moral facts.

Are Moral Values Objective or Subjective?

One of the central questions in metaethics is whether moral values are objective (existing independently of our thoughts and feelings) or subjective (dependent on individual or cultural perspectives). This debate touches on the nature of moral truth and whether it is universal or varies across different contexts.

What Do Ethical Terms Mean?

Metaethics explores the meaning of ethical language. Are terms like "good," "bad," "right," and "wrong" used to describe objective properties, or do they merely express emotions or commands? This question is central to the debate between cognitivism (the view that moral statements express beliefs that can be true or false) and non-cognitivism (the view that moral statements do not express truth-apt beliefs but rather emotions, prescriptions, or commands).

What is the Source of Moral Obligations?

Metaethics examines where moral obligations come from. Are they grounded in divine command, human reason, societal conventions, or individual preferences? This question relates to theories such as divine command theory, moral constructivism, and moral relativism.

How Do We Know Moral Truths?

Another key concern in metaethics is the epistemology of moral knowledge. How, if at all, can we know moral truths? Can moral knowledge be attained through reason, experience, intuition, or some other means? This question explores the connection between moral beliefs and other types of knowledge.

Key Theories in Metaethics

Moral Realism:

Moral realism asserts that there are objective moral facts that exist independently of our beliefs or perceptions. Realists argue that moral statements can be true or false based on these facts. Prominent moral realists include philosophers like G.E. Moore and David Brink.

Moral Anti-Realism:

Moral anti-realism denies the existence of objective moral facts. This category includes several different theories:

Moral Relativism: The view that moral truths are relative to cultures or individuals.

Emotivism: The theory that moral statements express emotional reactions and do not refer to objective facts.

Error Theory: The belief that while moral language attempts to describe objective facts, all such statements are false because no such facts exist.

Cognitivism vs. Non-Cognitivism:

Cognitivism holds that moral statements are capable of being true or false because they express beliefs about the world.

Non-Cognitivism asserts that moral statements do not express beliefs but rather emotional attitudes or prescriptions, thus they cannot be true or false.

Moral Constructivism:

Moral constructivism is the view that moral truths are constructed by procedures or practices, often within a rational or societal framework. It suggests that moral facts are not discovered but created through rational deliberation or social agreements.

Divine Command Theory:

This theory posits that moral obligations are derived from the commands of a divine being. It suggests that what is morally right or wrong is determined by God's will, making moral truth dependent on divine authority.

Moral Relativism:

Moral relativism holds that moral judgments and values are not absolute but vary depending on cultural, societal, or individual perspectives. It challenges the notion of universal moral truths and emphasizes the diversity of moral practices across different contexts.

Moral Subjectivism:

Moral subjectivism claims that moral judgments are based on individual feelings, preferences, or attitudes, making them inherently subjective. According to this view, there are no objective moral truths, only personal or societal opinions.

Importance of Metaethics

Metaethics plays a crucial role in shaping our understanding of morality. By examining the foundations of ethical thought, it helps clarify what we mean when we talk about right and wrong, good and bad. Metaethics also influences how we approach moral disagreements, ethical decision-making, and the justification of moral beliefs. It provides the tools to critically analyze the assumptions underlying various ethical theories and practices, leading to a deeper and more nuanced understanding of morality.

Sharon Street, Coming to Terms with Contingency: Humean Constructivism about Practical Reason